Deccan, South India & Cultural Life (6th–10th Centuries)

Exploring Society: India and Beyond Part-II | Chapter 3: Empires and Kingdoms

The Chalukyas — Masters of the Deccan

In the mid-6th century CE, Pulakeshin I founded the Chalukya dynasty^?. His grandson, Pulakeshin II, not only blocked Harsha's southward expansion but also greatly enlarged the Chalukya kingdom. Their capital was Vatapi (present-day Badami in Karnataka), famous for its complex of magnificent Hindu and Jain cave temples.

Nearby, the earlier capital Aryapura (later called Ayyavole, present-day Aihole) houses over a hundred Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain temples. A 7th-century Jain temple there displays a lengthy Sanskrit inscription by the court poet Ravikiriti that celebrates Pulakeshin II's victories — though with some exaggerations contradicted by other inscriptions!

Xuanzang visited the Chalukya kingdom and mentioned that Pulakeshin II's beneficent actions were felt across a great distance. In the early 7th century, most of India was dominated by two great powers — Harshavardhana north of the Vindhyas and Pulakeshin II to the south. However, Pulakeshin II eventually met defeat at the hands of the Pallavas. By the mid-8th century, the Rashtrakutas had replaced the Chalukyas in the Deccan.

The Eastern Chalukyas asserted independence and expanded in the eastern Deccan, ruling from Vengi (in present-day Andhra Pradesh). They promoted Hindu and Jain sects as well as Buddhist centres, and Telugu and Kannada literature flourished under them.

The Pallavas — Rock-cut Marvels

With their capital at Kanchi^? (present-day Kanchipuram in Tamil Nadu), the Pallava dynasty reached its peak in the 7th century under Mahendravarman I and his son Narasimhavarman I. The latter, also known as ‘Mamalla’ (meaning wrestler or warrior), defeated Pulakeshin II and captured Badami. He also sent a naval expedition to Sri Lanka to help a Sinhalese prince recover his lost throne.

Kanchipuram was both a cultural centre and an economic hub, trading in spices, textiles (including silk), and ivory. The Pallavas developed trade relations with Sri Lanka and much of Southeast Asia through seaports, particularly Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram), where ancient Chinese, Persian, and Roman coins were found during excavations.

At Mamallapuram, elaborate rock-cut caves and monolithic temples were carved in a distinctive style, depicting deities and illustrating scenes from the Mahabharata. The Pallavas promoted both Sanskrit and Tamil literature, and Mahendravarman I himself was a fine poet who left a satirical Sanskrit play.

Further South — Pandyas, Cheras & Cholas

Nearly a millennium before our period, the Pandya^?, Chola, and Chera kingdoms had been mentioned in Ashoka's edicts and in the Sangam literature. After a period of eclipse, they now re-emerged, shaping the South's political and cultural life — often warring with each other.

The Cholas ended up building one of the largest empires in south Indian history, known for elaborate and efficient administration, a powerful navy, and grand temples. They patronised arts such as sculpture and architecture, and promoted both Tamil and Sanskrit. The fertile Kaveri delta, along with efficient irrigation techniques, ensured steady agricultural output. Chola dominance lasted until the 13th century.

Society, Economy & Administration

Polity and the Samanta System

The fall of large, unified empires gave way to smaller, decentralised kingdoms. Kings governed their core regions directly but managed other areas through subordinate rulers called samantas^? (tributaries or vassals). These samantas led armies and managed local administration, but their loyalty could be fragile. Some, like the Rashtrakutas — once samantas under the Chalukyas — eventually grew powerful enough to overthrow their overlords.

Directly controlled territories were divided into provinces (bhuktis or rashtras), districts (mandalas), and villages. Villages were overseen by headmen, accountants, and local committees, remaining largely self-governed. By the 9th century, south India saw the rise of assemblies at several levels — the Chola inscriptions at Uttaramerur detail the selection process for village sabha members, showing the long continuity of democratic traditions in India.

Trade, Economy & Urbanisation

The land grant system that had begun under the Guptas expanded greatly. Kings, chiefs, and vassals gave land to individuals, communities, and religious establishments. Many grants brought uncultivated land under cultivation, expanding agriculture and crop diversity. Rulers like the Pallavas built numerous irrigation tanks in Tamil Nadu, many of which are still functional today.

Alongside agriculture, trade and markets flourished. Small traders handled local trade, while ship-owning merchants conducted long-distance commerce. From the 8th century onward, India's west coast saw brisk shipping with ports in present-day Iran, Iraq, and Africa's east coast, while the east coast connected with Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, and Chinese ports. Copper-plate inscriptions even record the presence of Christian, Muslim, and Jewish traders from West Asia.

Social Life

Indian society grew more complex during this period. Traditional jatis multiplied, with many new ones based on occupation or region. The varna-jati system varied widely across regions and remained flexible rather than rigid. Several sources indicate that dynasties like the Palas and Kakatiyas were originally from the Shudra community but rose to be regarded as Kshatriyas.

Cultural Life — Bhakti, Tantra & Beyond

Rulers patronised different schools of thought — Hindu, Buddhist, or Jain — regardless of their personal inclinations. Around the 6th century, Tantric^? schools of thought emerged, emphasising rituals, meditation, mantras, and the worship of powerful deities, especially Shakti. Buddhism thrived in eastern India under the Palas, thanks to its monastic universities, but elsewhere it declined as temple-based Hinduism and bhakti practices rose.

From the 6th century onward, the Bhakti Movement^? spread massively. The initial spark came from the South, where two groups of devotees produced powerful devotional literature in Tamil: the 12 Alvars (devotees of Vishnu, including the woman saint Andal) and the 63 Nayanars (devotees of Shiva, including three women). These saints came from diverse social backgrounds, and their poetry invoked a direct, personal relationship with the divine that was open to everyone — cutting across gender and social divisions.

A Galaxy of Mathematicians

Born in 598 CE at Bhillamala, Brahmagupta^? introduced the rules of arithmetic operations with zero, negative numbers, and fractions in his work Brahmasphutasiddhanta. He also pioneered techniques for solving equations, establishing him as one of the founders of modern algebra. His works were translated into Persian and Latin, contributing to the growth of mathematics in the Arab world and Europe.

Other brilliant scholars included Bhaskara I (trigonometry), Virahanka (the Virahanka-Fibonacci sequence), and Mahavira, a Jain scholar at the Rashtrakuta court who authored the first work of mathematics independent of astronomy.

Foreign Invasions — Hunas & Arabs

The Huna Challenge

The Hunas^? (thought to be a branch of the Central Asian Huns) had played a part in weakening the Gupta Empire. In the early 6th century, two Huna leaders pushed deep into the Ganga plains but were decisively defeated by kings of the Aulikara dynasty at Dashapura (modern Mandsaur). By the 7th century, the Hunas had assimilated into Indian society — serving as soldiers, taking up local administration roles, adopting Sanskrit, and using Gupta-style royal titles and coins.

The Arabs Arrive on India's Shores

In 637 CE, India's western coast witnessed naval raids by Muslim Arabs on Thana, Bharuch, and Debal, though without lasting territorial control. The first major Arab conquest came in 712 CE when Muhammad bin Qasim swept into Sindh. He captured Debal, then moved to Aror, defeating King Dahar in battle.

Within two years of Qasim's death, Indian chiefs rebelled and regained most territory. The Gurjara-Pratihara king Nagabhata I crushed Arab forces pushing into Rajputana. Kashmir's King Lalitaditya defeated an Arab chief three times. After three centuries of effort, Arab dominion in India was limited to just two petty states in Sindh and Punjab.