New Beginnings: Cities and States — Second Urbanisation & the Mahajanapadas

NCERT Exploring Society: India and Beyond (Grade 7 Part I) | Chapter 4

From the First to the Second Urbanisation

You may recall from earlier studies that the Indus/Harappan Civilisation^?, often described as India's ‘First Urbanisation’, gradually declined and disintegrated after approximately 2000 BCE. The hallmarks of that urban civilisation — elaborate structures, busy markets, specialised occupations, a writing system, sanitation, and an administrative setup — all faded away. For nearly a thousand years thereafter, urban life remained largely absent across the subcontinent.

Then, during the 1st millennium BCE, a dynamic new wave of city-building emerged, centred primarily in the Ganga plains^? and parts of the Indus basin, before spreading to other regions. This phase is known as India's Second Urbanisation, and remarkably, it has continued in an unbroken thread right up to the present day.

Janapadas and Mahajanapadas

Towards the close of the 2nd millennium BCE, regional cultures in north India began reorganising themselves into clan-based territories. As people sharing a common language and customs formed clans, each group became associated with a specific janapada governed by a raja. Trade networks expanded and connected these territories, and by the 8th or 7th centuries BCE, several janapadas had merged into larger political units known as mahajanapadas^?.

Ancient texts frequently list 16 mahajanapadas, stretching from Gandhara in the northwest to Anga in the east and Ashmaka in central India near the Godavari River. Among the most powerful were Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa, and Avanti.

Fortified Capital Cities

Most mahajanapada capitals were large, well-fortified urban centres. Massive rampart walls encircled the city, often with a moat^? running outside the fortifications for additional defence. Gateways through the rampart walls were deliberately kept narrow, allowing guards to control the movement of people and goods entering or leaving. It is remarkable that many of these ancient capitals continue as living cities today — modern settlements that are often 2,500 years old.

Early Democratic Traditions

Each janapada maintained an assembly or council called sabha or samiti^?, where clan matters were discussed. These terms first appear in the Vedas, India's most ancient texts. The raja was not expected to rule independently or in an authoritarian manner — a good ruler was expected to consult the assembly of elders, ministers, and administrators. Some texts even suggest that an incompetent ruler could be removed by the assembly.

Monarchies and Ganas

The mahajanapadas expanded upon the political principles of the janapadas. Some operated as monarchies, where the raja held ultimate authority and the position was hereditary. The king collected taxes, maintained law and order, constructed impressive fortifications, and maintained an army. Magadha, Kosala, and Avanti were among the most powerful monarchical states.

However, at least two mahajanapadas — Vajji (Vrijji) and the neighbouring Malla — had a fundamentally different system. In these states, the sabha or samiti held greater power and took important decisions through discussion and, when necessary, by voting. This even included the selection of the raja! These mahajanapadas, known as ganas or sanghas^?, functioned in a manner that scholars have described as democratic. They are widely recognised as among the earliest republican systems anywhere in the world.