Empires & Kingdoms: North India (6th to 10th Centuries)

Exploring Society: India and Beyond Part-II | Chapter 3: Empires and Kingdoms

Introduction — A Land of Many Kingdoms

After the mighty Gupta Empire^? faded around 600 CE, India did not sink into darkness. Instead, numerous regional powers rose across the subcontinent, each bringing its own cultural, political, and artistic identity. From about 600 CE to 1200 CE, a remarkable tapestry of dynasties emerged — fighting one another, forging alliances, building magnificent temples, and nurturing great centres of learning.

Imagine yourself as a young traveller in India some 1,500 years ago. Your first stop is Kannauj^?, a prosperous city by the Ganga where a powerful ruler hosts poets and scholars. A few weeks later, you reach the Deccan, where you see stunning cave temples. In the far south, the Pallavas are carving entire temples from rock, while in Bengal, the Palas support great universities. There are no single mighty empires, yet the land hums with new ideas, art, and culture.

Harshavardhana — The Great King of Kings

As we look at northern India around the early 7th century, we find a remarkable ruler: Harshavardhana^?, who came to the throne in 606 CE at Kannauj. He belonged to the Pushyabhuti (or Vardhana) dynasty, originally based at Sthaneshvara (present-day Thanesar in Haryana). Ruling from Kannauj (anciently Kanyakubja, in present-day Uttar Pradesh), Harsha expanded his dominion over large parts of northern and eastern India.

Harsha the Poet and Patron

Harsha was not merely a warrior. He was a fine poet and dramatist — believed to be the author of three plays in classical Sanskrit that wove love stories with courtly life and high ethical values. Historians mine such literary works for interesting details about governance, social diversity, technologies, foods, and clothing of the era.

Harsha also supported scholars like Banabhatta (also known as Bana), who composed Kadambari — considered one of the world's earliest novels — and Harshacharita, a biography of the king. Inscriptions portray Harsha as a devotee of Shiva, though other sources indicate he was also deeply attached to Buddhism while showing respect for all schools of thought.

Xuanzang — The Chinese Pilgrim

An invaluable historical source for this period is the travelogue of the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang^?, who travelled around India between 630 and 644 CE. Like his predecessor Faxian (who visited during the Gupta era), Xuanzang came to visit sacred Buddhist sites and study doctrines from Indian teachers. He brought back over 600 Sanskrit manuscripts of Buddhist texts to China, carried on twenty horses!

Xuanzang described Kannauj as a beautiful and prosperous city, and Harsha as a just and energetic ruler with a vast army. He recorded that every five years, Harsha held a grand assembly at Prayaga (present-day Prayagraj), at the confluence of the Ganga and Yamuna, where the king distributed enormous wealth to Buddhists, Brahmins, and the poor.

Harsha attempted to extend his empire southward beyond the Narmada but was checked by Pulakeshin II of the powerful Chalukya dynasty. He also formed an alliance with the Varman dynasty of Kamarupa (in today's Assam), but conflicts with neighbouring kingdoms continued throughout his reign.

The Tripartite Struggle for Kannauj

Following Harsha's death, north India experienced intense political turmoil. Three powerful dynasties fought repeatedly over Kannauj during the 8th and 9th centuries — the Palas^? from the east, the Gurjara-Pratiharas^? from the west, and the Rashtrakutas^? from the Deccan. None achieved lasting victory.

The Palas (Eastern India)

After Harsha's death, Bengal fell into disorder until, around 750 CE, the people chose Gopala to restore stability — the first king of the Pala dynasty. His successor, Dharmapala, expanded Pala rule over much of eastern and northern India. A great patron of Mahayana Buddhism^?, Dharmapala founded important monasteries such as Vikramashila (in present-day Bihar) and Somapura (in present-day Bangladesh). The Palas also continued supporting Nalanda, the great centre of learning.

The Pala empire thrived economically through internal trade and brisk maritime commerce through eastern seaports, connecting to Southeast Asia. Though the empire later declined, it left a lasting legacy of strong governance and learning.

Vikramashila — A University with Scholar Gatekeepers

Dharmapala founded Vikramashila in the late 8th century on the banks of the Ganga. It remained a great centre of learning for over four centuries. The university had six colleges, monasteries, temples, lecture halls, and a vast library. Nearly 3,000 scholars studied subjects including grammar, logic, and Hindu and Buddhist philosophy. Admission was highly selective — each college had a dvarapandita (scholar gatekeeper) who tested students before allowing entry. Vikramashila was especially known for its ties with Tibet. Sadly, it was destroyed by Bakhtiyar Khilji in the 12th century.

The Gurjara-Pratiharas (Western & Central India)

This dynasty, founded in the mid-8th century by Nagabhata I, probably originated from western India. ‘Gurjara’ referred to a region between Gujarat and Rajasthan. Their early capital was Bhillamala (modern Bhinmal in western Rajasthan), later shifting to Ujjayini.

In the 9th century, the celebrated Pratihara king Bhoja, a devotee of Vishnu, built an empire stretching from Punjab to Kannauj, controlling most of north India. He was also known as ‘Mihira’ (a name of the Sun) and ‘Adi Varaha’. However, the Pratiharas later suffered as the Rashtrakutas destroyed Kannauj, hastening their empire's breakup.

The Rashtrakutas (The Deccan)

In the mid-8th century, Dantidurga became the first independent Rashtrakuta ruler after overthrowing the Chalukyas in the Deccan. From their capital at Manyakheta (modern Malkheda), the Rashtrakutas became one of the most dominant powers for nearly two centuries.

The Rashtrakuta king Krishna I commissioned the magnificent Kailashanatha temple at Ellora (present-day Maharashtra) — the largest rock-cut temple in India, carved directly from a hillside. The Rashtrakutas equally patronised Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain traditions, and encouraged literature in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and Kannada.

Another great ruler, Amoghavarsha I (titled ‘Nripatunga’ or ‘peak of kings’), reigned for an astonishing 64 years. He was strongly drawn to Jainism while also patronising Hindu temples. A fine poet himself, he composed works in both Sanskrit and Kannada.

Kashmir — The Himalayan Kingdom

Far to the north, in the mid-8th century, a new power stirred in the Himalayan kingdom of Kashmir. We learn about its successive rulers from Kalhana, who composed Rajatarangini (‘The River of Kings’) — a remarkable historical poem in Sanskrit written in the 12th century.

Among the many rulers Kalhana describes, Lalitaditya Muktapida of the Karkota dynasty is seen as a firm and powerful ruler. Later, the political scene experienced conflicts and shifts, including Queen Didda in the late 10th century, who consolidated power through strategic alliances, founded towns, built several temples, and restored many more.

Despite its mountainous geography, Kashmir remained well connected to political and cultural developments across India. It was a major centre for Sanskrit learning, philosophy, and arts. The school of Kashmir Shaivism produced scholars like Abhinavagupta, whose works on philosophy, poetry, and aesthetics had vast influence. Kashmir also served as a crucial bridge for Buddhist scholarship between northern India, Tibet, and Central Asia.