Society, Culture & Foreign Invasions

Chapter 3: Empires and Kingdoms — 6th to 10th Centuries

Polity and Administration

Large empires gave way to smaller kingdoms with a decentralised system. Kings ruled core regions directly but governed outlying areas through subordinate rulers called samantas^? (vassals or tributaries). These samantas led armies and managed local affairs, but their loyalty could shift when central authority weakened. Some samantas, like the Rashtrakutas, eventually overthrew their overlords.

Territories were divided into provinces (bhuktis), districts (mandalas), and villages. Villages were overseen by headmen and local committees, remaining largely self-governed. By the 9th century, south India saw elaborate village assemblies — the Chola inscriptions at Uttaramerur detail how sabha members were selected, demonstrating India's deep democratic traditions stretching back 1,500 years to the janapadas.

Trade, Economy and Urbanisation

The land grant system expanded greatly. Kings and vassals gave land to individuals and religious institutions. Grants brought uncultivated land under farming. The Pallavas built irrigation tanks in Tamil Nadu, many of which still work today. India's west coast traded with Iran, Iraq, and East Africa; the east coast connected with Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, and China. Copper-plate inscriptions mention Christian, Muslim, and Jewish traders from West Asia.

Social Life

Society grew more complex. Traditional jatis^? multiplied based on occupation or region. The system varied widely and was more flexible than often assumed — several rulers were originally Shudras but came to be regarded as Kshatriyas. While terms indicating discrimination appeared in some texts, different groups often functioned cooperatively since they depended on each other economically.

Banabhatta depicted women participating in agriculture, crafts, and court activities. Many inscriptions record women making temple offerings. Several queens ruled kingdoms, notably Tribhuvana Mahadevi I of the Bhauma-Karas in Odisha, who bore the title 'Supreme Sovereign Empress'.

Cultural and Religious Life

Rulers patronised Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain traditions regardless of personal beliefs. Tantric schools emerged around the 6th century, emphasising rituals and meditation. The Puranas helped integrate local deities into broader pan-Indian cults of Shiva, Vishnu, Krishna, and various Devis.

The Bhakti tradition^? spread massively from the 6th century onward. The 12 Alvars (Vishnu devotees, including the woman poet Andal) and 63 Nayanars (Shiva devotees, including three women) composed powerful devotional poetry in Tamil. More bhakti saints followed across India from diverse backgrounds, composing in regional languages and teaching that devotion was open to everyone — cutting across gender and social divisions.

Mathematics and Astronomy

Born in 598 CE at Bhillamala, Brahmagupta^? introduced rules for arithmetic with zero, negative numbers, and fractions, and pioneered algebra. Other scholars included Bhaskara I (trigonometry), Virahanka (the sequence later called Fibonacci), and the Jain mathematician Mahavira (first independent mathematics text). Their works were translated into Arabic and later influenced European mathematics.

Foreign Invasions

The Hunas

The Hunas pushed into the Ganga plains in the early 6th century but were defeated by Aulikara kings at Dashapura (modern Mandsaur). By the 7th century, they had assimilated into Indian society, adopting Sanskrit, Gupta-style titles, and religious symbols.

The Arabs

Arab naval raids on India's west coast began in 637 CE. In 712 CE, Muhammad bin Qasim conquered Sindh. However, Indian chiefs soon rebelled and regained territory. The Gurjara-Pratihara king Nagabhata I crushed Arab forces. For three centuries, Arab control was limited to small areas in Sindh and Punjab.