The Deccan & South Indian Kingdoms

Exploring Society: India and Beyond Part II | Chapter 3: Empires and Kingdoms — 6th to 10th Centuries

Kashmir — A Northern Himalayan Power

In the mid-8th century, a new power was stirring in the Himalayan kingdom of Kashmir. Among the many kings and queens described by the historian Kalhana^? in his epic poem Rajatarangini (literally 'The River of Kings'), Lalitaditya Muktapida of the Karkota dynasty stands out as a firm ruler who expanded Kashmir's influence.

However, Kashmir's political scene later experienced internal conflicts and power shifts. In the late 10th century, Queen Didda consolidated power through strategic alliances but also by eliminating rivals. She founded towns, built temples, and restored many more. Despite its mountainous geography, Kashmir remained well connected to cultural developments across India. It was a major centre for Sanskrit learning, philosophy, and the arts.

A school of thought called Kashmir Shaivism^? produced scholars like Abhinavagupta, whose works on philosophy, poetry, and aesthetics had vast influence across India. Kashmir also served as a bridge for Buddhist scholarship, with monks and texts travelling between Kashmir, northern India, Tibet, and Central Asia.

The Chalukyas of the Deccan

In the mid-6th century CE, Pulakeshin I founded the Chalukya^? dynasty. His grandson Pulakeshin II not only blocked Harshavardhana's southern expansion but also significantly extended Chalukya territories. Their capital was Vatapi (present-day Badami in Karnataka), famous for its magnificent Hindu and Jain cave temples.

The earlier Chalukya capital, Aryapura (later known as 'Ayyavole', present-day Aihole), is home to over a hundred Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain temples. A 7th-century inscription at a Jain temple on Meguti Hill records the court poet Ravikirti's praise of Pulakeshin II's victories — though historians note that this inscription contains some exaggerations contradicted by other sources.

In the early 7th century, most of India was dominated by two great imperial powers — Harshavardhana north of the Vindhyas and Pulakeshin II south of them. However, Pulakeshin II eventually suffered defeat at the hands of the Pallavas of Kanchi. By the mid-8th century, the Rashtrakutas replaced the Chalukyas in the Deccan.

The Pallavas of Kanchi

With their capital at Kanchi^? (present-day Kanchipuram in Tamil Nadu), the Pallavas reached their peak in the 7th century under Mahendravarman I and his son Narasimhavarman I. The latter, known as 'Mamalla' (meaning 'wrestler'), defeated Pulakeshin II and captured Badami. He also sent a naval expedition to Sri Lanka to assist a Sinhalese prince.

Kanchipuram was both a cultural centre and an economic hub, with thriving trade in spices, textiles, ivory, and luxury goods. The Pallavas developed maritime trade links with Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia through seaports, especially Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram), where ancient Chinese, Persian, and Roman coins were discovered during excavations.

At Mamallapuram, the Pallavas created elaborate rock-cut caves and monolithic^? temples in a distinctive style, depicting deities and scenes from the Mahabharata. They patronised Jain, Vaishnavite, and Shaivite schools of thought, and promoted both Sanskrit and Tamil literature. The Pallavas ruled until the late 9th century, when they were overthrown by the Chola king Aditya I.

The Far South — Pandyas, Cheras, and the Rise of the Cholas

Nearly a millennium before our period, the Pandya, Chola, and Chera kingdoms were mentioned in an edict of Ashoka and in the Sangam literature (the earliest Tamil poetry collections). After a period of eclipse, they now re-emerged to shape the South's political and cultural life.

The Pandyas

The Pandyas rose to power by the 6th century, allied with the Chalukyas and Pallavas, and controlled much of southern Tamil Nadu. Their capital was Madurai, a vibrant cultural centre. They conducted maritime trade with Southeast Asia through ports such as Korkai. A copper plate mentions their translation of the Mahabharata into Tamil (which unfortunately has not survived). In the 10th century, the Cholas swept them aside, though they would re-emerge three centuries later.

The Cheras

Along the Kerala coast, the Cheras (also known as Chera Perumals) maintained their independence despite the military power of their neighbours.

The Rise of the Cholas

The Cholas^? were reborn under Vijayalaya in the 9th century. From his new capital at Thanjavur, he laid the foundation for a powerful kingdom. His son Aditya I expanded it by defeating the Pallavas, bringing most of present-day Tamil Nadu and parts of southern Andhra Pradesh under Chola control.

The Cholas built one of the largest empires in south Indian history, renowned for its efficient administration, powerful navy, and grand temples. They patronised arts such as sculpture and architecture, and promoted both Tamil and Sanskrit literatures. The fertile Kaveri delta, combined with efficient irrigation techniques, ensured steady agricultural output and contributed to the prosperity of the empire's heartland.