Harshavardhana & the Tripartite Struggle

Exploring Society: India and Beyond Part II | Chapter 3: Empires and Kingdoms — 6th to 10th Centuries

The Dawn of Regional Kingdoms

Following the decline of the Gupta Empire^? around 600 CE, India entered a dynamic phase lasting roughly six centuries (600–1200 CE). Rather than a single dominant empire, the subcontinent witnessed the rise of multiple powerful regional kingdoms. Each of these kingdoms developed distinctive administrative systems, patronised arts and learning, and competed fiercely for control of strategic territories.

Imagine yourself as a young traveller in India about 1,500 years ago. At Kannauj on the banks of the Ganga, a great king hosts poets and scholars. Further south in the Deccan, the Chalukyas are constructing magnificent cave temples. At Mamallapuram on the coast, the Pallavas are carving entire temples from rock. In Bengal, the Palas are nurturing great universities. No single empire dominates, yet every region pulses with creativity, trade, and new ideas.

Harshavardhana — The Great King of Kings

In 606 CE, a remarkable ruler named Harshavardhana^? ascended the throne at Kannauj (anciently known as Kanyakubja, in present-day Uttar Pradesh). He belonged to the Pushyabhuti (or Vardhana) dynasty, whose earlier capital was Sthaneshvara (modern Thanesar in Haryana).

Harsha expanded his territories across much of northern and eastern India. He was not only a warrior but also a gifted poet and dramatist, credited with writing three plays in classical Sanskrit that blended themes of love, courtly life, and high ethical values. Historians use such literary works to learn about governance, social diversity, technology, food, and clothing of those times.

Harsha as a Patron of Learning

Harsha supported scholars like Banabhatta^?, who composed the celebrated literary work Kadambari — considered one of the world's earliest novels. Banabhatta also wrote Harshacharita, a biography of the king. Inscriptions describe Harsha as a devotee of Shiva, though other sources indicate he was also deeply attached to Buddhism while showing respect for all schools of thought.

Xuanzang — The Chinese Pilgrim

An invaluable historical source for this period comes from the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang^?, who travelled across India between 630 and 644 CE. His primary motivation was to visit sacred Buddhist sites and study doctrines from Indian teachers. He brought back over 600 Sanskrit manuscripts of Buddhist texts to China (carried by twenty horses!) and left a meticulous account of the kingdoms he visited, recording details about politics, diplomacy, culture, and religion.

Harshavardhana warmly welcomed Xuanzang and held a grand assembly at Kannauj in his honour, attended by kings and leaders of many religious sects. Xuanzang described Kannauj as a beautiful and prosperous city and Harsha as a just and energetic ruler who maintained a large army. Every five years, Harsha held a grand assembly at Prayaga (modern Prayagraj) where he performed sacred rites and generously distributed wealth to Buddhists, Brahmins, and the poor.

Harsha's Southward Ambitions and Alliances

Harsha attempted to extend his empire south of the Narmada river but was stopped by Pulakeshin II of the powerful Chalukya dynasty in the Deccan. In the east, Harsha formed an alliance with the Varman dynasty of Kamarupa (in present-day Assam, with their capital Pragjyotisha near modern Guwahati), but conflicts with neighbouring kingdoms continued throughout his reign.

The Tripartite Struggle for Kannauj

Three mighty dynasties were drawn into a long, indecisive contest for dominance over Kannauj and the prosperous Gangetic heartland:

The Palas of Eastern India

After Harsha's death, Bengal fell into disorder until the people chose Gopala in 750 CE to restore stability — he became the first king of the Pala dynasty. His successor, Dharmapala, expanded the empire across much of eastern and northern India and became renowned as a patron of Mahayana Buddhism. He founded the great monastery and university of Vikramashila^? (in present-day Bihar) and Somapura (in present-day Bangladesh), while also continuing to support the famous Nalanda.

The Pala Empire thrived economically through both internal and maritime trade. Its eastern seaports provided pathways to Southeast Asia. Though the empire later declined, it left a lasting legacy of governance and learning.

The Gurjara-Pratiharas of Western India

Founded in the mid-8th century by Nagabhata I, this dynasty probably originated from western India (the term 'Gurjara' referred to a region between Gujarat and Rajasthan). They gained fame for pushing back Arab invasions into northwest India. Their early capital was Bhillamala (modern Bhinmal in western Rajasthan).

In the 9th century, the celebrated Pratihara ruler King Bhoja (also known as 'Mihira' after the Sun) built an empire stretching from Punjab and Kathiawar in the west to Kannauj in the east, controlling most of north India. However, the Rashtrakutas later destroyed Kannauj, hastening the disintegration of the Pratihara empire. It was finally eliminated in the early 11th century by the Ghaznavids.

The Rashtrakutas of the Deccan

In the mid-8th century, Dantidurga became the first independent Rashtrakuta ruler by overthrowing the Chalukyas. With their capital at Manyakheta (modern Malkheda in Karnataka), the Rashtrakutas became one of the most dominant powers for nearly two centuries. Their successors even briefly occupied Kannauj.

The Rashtrakuta king Krishna I commissioned the magnificent Kailashanatha temple^? at Ellora (Maharashtra) — the largest rock-cut temple in India, carved entirely out of a hillside. The dynasty equally patronised Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain schools of thought, and encouraged literature in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and Kannada.

Another notable Rashtrakuta ruler was Amoghavarsha I, who took the title 'Nripatunga' (peak of kings). Despite frequent wars, he ensured peace and prosperity for an remarkable 64-year reign. He was strongly drawn to Jainism but also patronised Hindu temples, and composed works in both Sanskrit and Kannada.

Key Timeline: 6th to 10th Centuries