9.9 Why So Many Amendments? — The Three Categories

The textbook classifies amendments^? into three groups, depending on what they actually do. Holding this map in mind makes the long list manageable.

9.10 Amendments Per Decade — Visualising the Pace

Counting amendments by decade reveals the rhythm of Indian constitutional change. The first decade (1950s) saw a few important early amendments. The 1970s and 1980s saw the most. Even in the era of coalitions, amendments did not stop.

9.11 The Major Amendments — A Timeline

The full list of 106 amendments would fill a book. The textbook focuses on the ones that matter. Here is the timeline of those landmark amendments — the ones that changed how Indians live, vote, learn, govern themselves and pay taxes.

9.12 Early Amendments — The Foundation Years (1951–1971)

First Amendment, 1951 — Speech, Land & the Ninth Schedule

The very first amendment came barely a year after the Constitution had taken effect. It made three changes that set the tone for decades. First, it placed reasonable restrictions on the right to freedom of speech and expression^? in the interests of public order, friendly relations with foreign States, and incitement to an offence. Second, to protect early land-reform laws from court challenges, it added the Ninth Schedule — a list of laws insulated from judicial review on the ground that they violated fundamental rights. Third, it inserted Articles 15(4) and 31A–31B to allow for special provisions for backward classes and to validate compulsory acquisition of property for public purposes.

Seventh Amendment, 1956 — Reorganising the States on Linguistic Lines

The 7th Amendment of 1956 carried out one of the most ambitious administrative restructurings in any modern democracy. Following the report of the States Reorganisation Commission, the existing categories of Part A, B, C and D States were abolished. India was reorganised into 14 States and 6 Union Territories on largely linguistic lines — Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra and others were eventually carved out from this base. Federalism in India became, in practice, a federalism of language and culture. Notice: although this amendment changed the very map of India, the change was carried out under Procedure 1 (simple majority) because Articles 2 and 3 themselves use the words “by law”.

Twenty-Fourth Amendment, 1971 — Parliament's Power to Amend

By 1971, the question “can Parliament amend Fundamental Rights?” had become explosive. In Golak Nath (1967), the Supreme Court had said no. The 24th Amendment of 1971 was Parliament's reply: it explicitly inserted into Article 13 and Article 368 a clarification that Parliament has the power to amend any part of the Constitution, including Fundamental Rights. It also made the President's assent compulsory for amendment bills. This was the constitutional cliff-edge that would lead, two years later, to the Supreme Court's reply in Kesavananda Bharati (1973) — the basic structure doctrine, discussed in Part 3.

9.13 The Emergency-Era Amendments — The Most Controversial

The textbook is unsparing on this period. The 38th, 39th and 42nd Amendments — all made in the background of the internal Emergency declared in June 1975 — were “the most controversial amendments so far”. They sought to make basic changes in many crucial parts of the Constitution and were seen by opposition parties as attempts by the ruling party to subvert it.

Forty-Fourth Amendment, 1978 — The Restoration

The 1977 elections defeated the ruling Congress and brought the Janata Party to power. The new government considered it necessary to reconsider these controversial amendments. Through the 43rd and 44th Amendments, most of the changes effected by the 38th, 39th and 42nd Amendments were cancelled. The textbook notes: “the constitutional balance was restored by these amendments.” Three changes deserve special attention.

9.14 Consensus Amendments — Building a Modern Democracy (1985–2003)

From 1985 onwards, even during turbulent coalition years, an evolving consensus produced amendments that reshaped Indian democracy without serious controversy.

9.15 The 21st-Century Amendments — New Issues, New Challenges

99th Amendment, 2014 — The NJAC and the Court's Reply

For decades the appointment of judges to the Supreme Court and High Courts had been governed by the “collegium system” — a self-regulating arrangement of senior judges. The 99th Amendment of 2014 created the National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC)^? in its place — a six-member body including the Chief Justice, two senior judges, the Law Minister and two eminent persons. Within a year, in a 4-1 ruling in 2015, the Supreme Court struck down the 99th Amendment as a violation of the basic structure (judicial independence). The collegium system was restored. This is the only constitutional amendment in India's history to be entirely struck down by the judiciary — a striking demonstration of the basic structure doctrine.

101st Amendment, 2016 — The Goods and Services Tax (GST)

The 101st Amendment of 2016 introduced the Goods and Services Tax (GST)^? — a single, unified, destination-based indirect tax that replaced a tangled web of central and State taxes (excise, service tax, VAT, octroi, entry tax, etc.). It created the GST Council, where the Centre and States together decide tax rates. Because it changed the way taxation power was distributed between Centre and States, it required the federal Procedure 3 (special majority + ratification by half of State legislatures) of Article 368.

103rd Amendment, 2019 — 10% EWS Reservation

The 103rd Amendment of 2019 introduced a 10% reservation in education and government jobs for “Economically Weaker Sections” (EWS^?) among classes not already covered by SC, ST or OBC reservations. It amended Articles 15 and 16 of the Constitution. This was the first time reservation was provided on a purely economic criterion — rather than on the basis of social and educational backwardness. The Supreme Court upheld the amendment in 2022 (Janhit Abhiyan v. Union of India).

105th Amendment, 2021 — Restoring State Powers on SEBC

The 105th Amendment of 2021 clarified that States have the power to identify Socially and Educationally Backward Classes (SEBCs) for their own purposes — reversing the Supreme Court's 2021 ruling in Maratha Reservation that had read the 102nd Amendment of 2018 as transferring this power solely to the Centre. The 105th Amendment is a good example of Parliament responding to a judicial interpretation by clarifying its own intention.

Article 370 Abrogation, 2019 — Through Resolutions

In August 2019, the central government rendered Article 370 — which had given Jammu & Kashmir its special constitutional status — effectively inoperative. This was done not through a Constitution Amendment Act but through a Presidential Order (under Article 370 itself) followed by parliamentary resolutions. The Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019 also bifurcated the State into two Union Territories (Jammu & Kashmir, and Ladakh). The Supreme Court upheld the abrogation in In re: Article 370 of the Constitution, December 2023. The episode shows how the Constitution can be reshaped through procedures that are not, strictly speaking, “amendments” under Article 368.

9.16 The Big Picture — A Master Table

9.17 Pattern: What Story Do These Amendments Tell?

Looking at the timeline as a whole, three patterns stand out. First, the Constitution has expanded the rights of citizens over time — voting age was lowered, education became a right, local self-government was constitutionally protected, weaker sections gained reservation, and the right to property was repositioned to enable redistribution. Second, the Constitution has deepened federalism — from the linguistic reorganisation of 1956 to the Panchayati Raj of 1992 to the GST Council of 2016, the trend has been towards more, not less, decentralisation and shared decision-making. Third, the Constitution has held its core through the worst storms — the Emergency-era assault was reversed; the NJAC was struck down; the basic structure has survived. The very fact that we can list 106 amendments and still recognise the same Constitution is itself a measure of constitutional success.