Maratha Expansion, Administration & Cultural Revival

Exploring Society: India and Beyond Part-I | Chapter 3: The Rise of the Marathas

The Marathas after Shivaji

Shivaji left behind two sons — Sambhaji and Rajaram. After Shivaji's death, Sambhaji became the Chhatrapati^?. At this point, the Marathas were the only force standing between the Mughals and total control of the Deccan. Emperor Aurangzeb invaded the Deccan in force, conquering both the Bijapur (Adil Shahi) and Golconda (Qutb Shahi) Sultanates. He then captured Sambhaji, tortured him brutally, and had him executed. Following this, the Mughals seized Raigad, the Maratha capital.

Rajaram then assumed the title of Chhatrapati and escaped to Gingee (in present-day Tamil Nadu), spreading the Mughal-Maratha conflict into south India. Despite these setbacks, the Marathas fiercely defended their fortresses and frequently gained the upper hand in skirmishes. Aurangzeb found himself trapped in the Deccan, unable to leave, and died without having subdued the Marathas.

Following Rajaram's death, his queen Tarabai^? took charge and led the Marathas in an aggressive counter-offensive. Realising that with Aurangzeb and his army bogged down in the south, north India was left relatively unprotected, she dispatched large Maratha armies northward. Tarabai was, in a real sense, the architect of the Marathas' northward expansion.

Decentralisation and the Rise of the Peshwas

During this rapid expansion, the Maratha political structure transformed from Shivaji's centralised state to a more decentralised system. Although the Chhatrapati remained the nominal head, the real power shifted to regional chiefs and especially to the Peshwa^? (prime minister). Peshwa Bajirao I and his son Nanasaheb Peshwa were instrumental in the Marathas' pan-Indian expansion.

The Marathas brought vast stretches of India under their control and generally governed them well. However, the growing autonomy of regional chiefs sometimes led to indiscipline and abuse — a sharp contrast with Shivaji's values. For instance, the Marathas' ten-year campaign in Bengal caused much suffering to ordinary people.

The Pan-Indian Empire

In their northward push, the Marathas briefly controlled areas as far as Lahore, Attock, and even Peshawar (in modern-day Pakistan). They clashed with the Afghans and suffered a catastrophic defeat at the Battle of Panipat^? in 1761. Yet they recovered remarkably quickly during the time of Peshwa Madhavrao I. Under Mahadji Shinde (also known as Mahadji Scindia), the Marathas recaptured Delhi in 1771 and held it until the British took control three decades later.

In the latter half of the 18th century, the Marathas were the chief rivals of the British in India. Three Anglo-Maratha Wars were fought between 1775 and 1818. However, growing internal disunity among the Marathas and the superior organisational and technological capabilities of the British eventually brought Maratha power to an end. In effect, the British took India from the Marathas more than from the Mughals or any other power.

Maratha Administration

Civilian Administration

Shivaji established a relatively centralised administration for his kingdom. He abolished hereditary posts — a common practice under the Sultans and the Mughals — and replaced land assignments with salaries paid from the state treasury. Officials were periodically transferred to prevent them from accumulating excessive local power.

Shivaji also provided pensions to widows of fallen soldiers and even offered military posts to their sons, demonstrating remarkable concern for his soldiers and their families.

The Ashta Pradhana Mandala (Council of Eight Ministers)

Shivaji appointed a council of eight ministers to assist with governance. Each minister had a clearly defined role:

Revenue System: Chauth and Sardeshmukhi

The Marathas levied two important taxes on provinces not directly under their control — chauth^? (25 per cent of revenue) and sardeshmukhi^? (an additional 10 per cent). In return, the Marathas offered military protection and refrained from interfering in the internal administration of those provinces. The Mughals eventually approved this arrangement through treaties, and over time some of these provinces were absorbed into the Maratha Empire.

Military Administration

The Maratha armed forces comprised three branches: infantry, cavalry, and navy. The cavalry had two categories — bargirs (whose horses and equipment were state-funded) and shiledars (who provided their own). By the 18th century, the Marathas recognised the effectiveness of European-style disciplined troops and artillery, and leaders like Mahadji Shinde raised large European-trained armies.

Swords and lances were the preferred Maratha weapons, though guns were also used in significant numbers. Rockets were part of their arsenal from Shivaji's time, and by 1770, metal-tube rockets were being deployed in campaigns.

Maritime Supremacy

In the 18th century, Kanhoji Angre^? guided the Maratha Navy to victory in many naval battles through clever use of geography and battle tactics, despite their ships not being as technologically advanced as the European ones. The Marathas challenged the European practice of forcing Indians to buy naval trade passes (cartaz) and even began demanding passes from the Europeans themselves — who, frustrated, labelled Kanhoji Angre a 'pirate'.

Judicial System and Trade Networks

The Marathas maintained an efficient judicial system notable for its moderation in using capital punishment. The panchayat — a local gathering of officials and prominent men — served as the main body for dispensing justice, with appeals going to a Maratha chief. In major towns, the kotwal (police) maintained law and order.

Shivaji actively encouraged trade, and he and his officials owned ships that sailed to ports as distant as Mocha in Yemen, Muscat in Oman, and Malacca in Malaysia, carrying cargo including gold and textiles. Roads were constructed, ferry networks maintained for riverine transport, and bridges built over rivers and streams.

Cultural Revival and the Maratha Legacy

The Marathas made significant contributions to India's cultural development. Shivaji's vision of Swarajya was reflected in his royal seal, which carried a Sanskrit inscription — a notable departure from the prevalent use of Persian.

Shivaji commissioned a treatise called Rajya-Vyavahara-Kosha to promote the Marathi language by providing Sanskrit equivalents for commonly used Persian words in diplomacy. This substantially reduced the presence of foreign loanwords in Maratha official communication. While being a devout Hindu who upheld his own traditions, Shivaji respected all religions. He rebuilt desecrated temples, promoted Sanskrit and Marathi literature, and supported traditional arts.

Mighty Maratha Women

Tarabai was a fearless warrior queen who took charge after her husband Rajaram's death. Recognising that Aurangzeb's presence in the Deccan left north India vulnerable, she organised large Maratha armies for northward invasions. Her military strategy and tenacity outsmarted the Mughal Empire and preserved Maratha independence during a critical period.

Ahilyabai Holkar was a scion of the Holkar dynasty that ruled in central India around present-day Indore. Even after losing her husband and son, she governed the state wisely for thirty years while caring for the common people. Ahilyabai built and restored hundreds of temples, ghats, wells, and roads throughout India — from Kedarnath in the north to Rameswaram in the south. Most famously, she rebuilt the Kashi Vishwanath temple in Varanasi and the Somnath temple in Gujarat. She is also credited with promoting the Maheshwar weaving industry in Madhya Pradesh, revitalising traditional handloom crafts that thrive to this day.

In Focus: Thanjavur — A Cultural Gem

Ekoji, the half-brother of Shivaji, conquered the Thanjavur region (in present-day Tamil Nadu) in the late 17th century, beginning a remarkable era of Maratha rule in the south. The Thanjavur Marathas fostered a syncretic culture that blended Tamil, Telugu, and Marathi traditions. They were great patrons of the arts, and many rulers were themselves poets and dramatists.

Of all the Thanjavur Maratha rulers, Serfoji II stands out for his wide-ranging contributions. Well-versed in many Indian and European languages, he wrote a Marathi play describing world geography as understood at the time. He patronised talented musicians, established the Dhanwantari Mahal (a centre offering free treatment using both Indian and Western medicine), and started a printing press — the first by a native Indian ruler. He also had the history of the Bhonsle family inscribed on the walls of the Brihadishwara temple at Thanjavur, creating one of the largest single inscriptions in India.

The Maratha Legacy

The Marathas challenged Mughal dominance and built the largest Indian empire before the British takeover, governing much of central and northern India. They introduced efficient administrative systems, revived local Hindu traditions without religious discrimination, and their brave resistance against oppressive rule was driven by the fiery ideal of Swarajya. This ideal later inspired many Indians to believe they could govern themselves, planting early seeds for India's freedom movement.