The Mughals & Resistance Movements

NCERT Social Science — Exploring Society: India and Beyond Part-I | Tapestry of the Past: Reshaping India's Political Map

The Rise of the Mughal Empire

As the Delhi Sultanate weakened, Babur^?, a Turkic-Mongol ruler descended from Timur, turned his ambitions toward India. Having been driven out of Samarkand (modern Uzbekistan), he defeated Ibrahim Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526. This battle relied heavily on gunpowder, field artillery, and matchlock guns — weapons recently introduced to Indian warfare. The defeat ended the Delhi Sultanate and established the Mughal Empire^?.

After Babur's death in 1530, his son Humayun struggled to hold the empire. Sher Shah Suri, a powerful Afghan leader, seized control and introduced lasting reforms. However, the Sur Empire was short-lived, and Humayun eventually reconquered the lost territories.

Before Humayun's reconquest, Himu (Hemchandra Vikramaditya) — a skilled military commander under the last Suri rulers — briefly captured and ruled Delhi. He was defeated and killed at the Second Battle of Panipat by Babur's grandson, Akbar.

Akbar: Conquest and Tolerance

Declared emperor at just 13 years old after Humayun's accidental death, Akbar^? set out to bring the entire Subcontinent under Mughal control. His reign was a complex blend of brutality and tolerance, shaped by ambition and evolving wisdom.

Early Conquests: The Siege of Chittor

In his early years, Akbar showed no mercy. At the fort of Chittorgarh (Rajasthan), he besieged the Rajput defenders for over five months. Despite fierce resistance, the fort was breached. Rajput soldiers died fighting in large numbers, while hundreds of women committed jauhar^? to avoid capture. Akbar then ordered the massacre of approximately 30,000 civilians.

The Shift Toward Tolerance

As his empire expanded, Akbar increasingly relied on political strategies rather than sheer military force. He entered marriage alliances with Rajput princesses, welcomed regional leaders into his court, abolished the jizya tax, and promoted sulh-i-kul^? — "peace with all" or tolerance of all faiths.

Akbar's long reign lasted nearly 50 years (1556–1605). His court historian Abul Fazl recorded him reflecting on his earlier intolerance, noting that as he grew in knowledge he became ashamed of forcing others to conform to his faith.

Aurangzeb and the Empire's Peak

Shah Jahan, famous for building the Taj Mahal, fell ill in 1657. His eldest son Dara Shikoh was his chosen successor, but a younger brother, Aurangzeb^?, defeated Dara in battle, had him executed, imprisoned their father Shah Jahan in the Agra Fort, and crowned himself emperor in 1658. He took the title Alamgir — "conqueror of the world."

Aurangzeb, a deeply religious follower of Sunni Islam, led an austere life. He gradually banned practices he considered un-Islamic (such as music and dance at court), reimposed the jizya on non-Muslims, and ordered the demolition of temples. Temples at Banaras, Mathura, Somnath, and many other sites were destroyed, along with Jain temples and Sikh gurudwaras. This persecution extended even to Muslims of other sects, Sufis, and Zoroastrians.

Under Aurangzeb, the Mughal Empire reached its greatest territorial extent, though it was constantly besieged by rebellions. The last 25 years of his life were consumed by wars in the Deccan, depleting the treasury and straining administration — factors often cited as key causes of the empire's rapid decline after his death in 1707.

Resistance to the Mughals

Rani Durgavati and Tribal Resistance

Many communities resisted Mughal expansion. Peasant revolts, like the Jat rebellion in the 17th century, challenged Mughal authority. Tribal groups — Bhils, Gonds, Santhals, and Kochs — fought to protect their territories. Rani Durgavati, queen of the Garha kingdom (a Gond kingdom in central India), ruled wisely and maintained an army of 20,000 soldiers and 1,000 elephants. When Akbar's general attacked in 1564, she fought bravely but, wounded and outnumbered, took her own life to avoid capture. She was only 40 years old.

Surge of the Rajputs

The Rajputs had a proud tradition of resistance. After Rana Kumbha, Rana Sanga unified several Rajput clans and fought many battles before meeting defeat against Babur at the Battle of Khanwa. Maharana Pratap of Mewar refused to accept Mughal authority. At the Battle of Haldighati (1576), though the Mughal army had the upper hand, Maharana Pratap escaped and waged guerrilla warfare^? from the Aravalli hills. The Bhil tribal warriors provided crucial support as archers and terrain guides, earning a respected place in Mewar's military tradition — symbolised by the Bhil warrior on the Mewar emblem.

The Ahom Kingdom

In the 13th century, the Ahom^? people migrated from present-day Myanmar to the Brahmaputra Valley. Their unique paik system required every able-bodied man to provide service through labour or military duty in exchange for land rights — enabling a large standing force without a permanent army.

In 1671, the Ahoms achieved a famous victory at the Battle of Saraighat on the Brahmaputra River near present-day Guwahati. Commander Lachit Borphukan and 10,000 Ahom warriors defeated a Mughal force of 30,000. The Ahoms used their knowledge of local terrain — dense forests, hills, and rivers — along with guerrilla tactics to overcome the larger army.

The Rise of the Sikhs

In 15th-century Punjab, Guru Nanak^? spread the message of equality, compassion, and the oneness of God (Ik Onkar). His followers became known as Sikhs. Though Sikhism began as a purely spiritual movement, later Gurus had to respond to growing Mughal intolerance.

Emperor Jahangir had Guru Arjan tortured to death. This prompted Guru Arjan's son, Guru Hargobind, to introduce martial training and form a Sikh army. The sacred text Guru Granth Sahib, first compiled by Guru Arjan, stresses one God for all and values like truthfulness, compassion, and humility.

In 1675, Kashmiri Pandits approached Guru Tegh Bahadur seeking protection from religious persecution. The Guru decided to stand with them. Arrested by Aurangzeb and ordered to convert, he refused despite torture and was publicly beheaded in Chandni Chowk, Delhi.

His son, Guru Gobind Singh — the 10th and last Guru — established the Khalsa^? in 1699, a martial brotherhood committed to justice, equality, and defence of the faith.

As the Mughal Empire declined, Sikh confederacies emerged in Punjab and were eventually unified by Maharaja Ranjit Singh at the turn of the 19th century. His military skill, diplomacy, and religious tolerance allowed him to build a powerful, centralised Sikh Empire spanning much of the northwest, including parts of Kashmir.