4.9 Peace and Conflict with China — From Friendship to War

Unlike its early relationship with Pakistan, free India began its relationship with China on a notably friendly note. After the Chinese Revolution of 1949, India was one of the first countries to recognise the new communist government. Nehru felt strongly for this neighbour just emerging from the shadow of Western domination, and helped the new Chinese government in international fora. Some of his colleagues — especially Vallabhbhai Patel — were already worried about a future Chinese aggression. Nehru, however, thought it was "exceedingly unlikely" that India would face an attack from China. For a very long time, the Chinese border was guarded by para-military forces, not the army.

The joint enunciation of Panchsheel^?, the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, by Indian Prime Minister Nehru and Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai on 29 April 1954 was a major step toward a stronger relationship. Indian and Chinese leaders visited each other's countries and were greeted by large and friendly crowds. Slogans of "Hindi-Chini Bhai-Bhai^?" echoed across both nations.

4.9.1 The Tibet Question — A Strain Beneath the Friendship

The plateau of central Asia called Tibet is one of the major issues that historically caused tension between India and China. From time to time in history, China had claimed administrative control over Tibet; at other times, Tibet was effectively independent. In 1950, China took control of Tibet. Large sections of the Tibetan population opposed this takeover. India tried to persuade China to recognise Tibet's claims. When the Panchsheel agreement was signed between India and China in 1954, one of its clauses about respecting each other's territorial integrity and sovereignty meant that India effectively conceded China's claim over Tibet.

The Tibetan spiritual leader Dalai Lama accompanied Zhou Enlai during the official Chinese visit to India in 1956. He privately informed Nehru about the worsening situation. In 1958 there was an armed uprising in Tibet against Chinese occupation; it was suppressed by Chinese forces. Sensing that the situation had become worse, in 1959 the Dalai Lama crossed over into India and sought asylum, which was granted. The Chinese government strongly protested. Over the last half century, large numbers of Tibetan refugees have settled in India — particularly in Delhi and in Dharmashala (Himachal Pradesh), which became the Dalai Lama's home in India and the largest Tibetan refugee settlement.

4.9.2 The Border Dispute — McMahon Line and Aksai Chin

A boundary dispute had also surfaced. India claimed that the boundary was settled in colonial times — most notably the McMahon Line^? in the eastern sector. China replied that any colonial decision did not apply. The main dispute was about the western and the eastern ends of the long border. China claimed two areas inside Indian territory: Aksai Chin in the Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir, and much of the state of Arunachal Pradesh (then called NEFA — North Eastern Frontier Agency). Between 1957 and 1959 the Chinese occupied Aksai Chin and built a strategic road there. Despite long correspondence and discussions among top leaders, these differences could not be resolved. Several small border skirmishes followed.

4.9.3 The Chinese Invasion of October 1962

While the entire world's attention was focused on the Cuban Missile crisis involving the two superpowers, China launched a swift and massive invasion in October 1962 on both the disputed regions. The first attack lasted one week, and Chinese forces captured key areas in Arunachal Pradesh. The second wave of attack came the next month. While Indian forces could block Chinese advances on the western front in Ladakh, in the east the Chinese managed to advance nearly to the entry point of the Assam plains. Then, abruptly, China declared a unilateral ceasefire and withdrew to the positions held before the invasion.

The China war dented India's image at home and abroad. India had to approach the Americans and the British for military assistance to tide over the crisis. The Soviet Union remained neutral. The episode induced a sense of national humiliation and at the same time strengthened a spirit of nationalism. Some top army commanders either resigned or were retired. Nehru's close associate and Defence Minister, V.K. Krishna Menon, had to leave the cabinet. Nehru's own stature suffered as he was severely criticised for his naïve assessment of Chinese intentions and for the lack of military preparedness. For the first time, a no-confidence motion was moved and debated in the Lok Sabha against his government. Soon thereafter the Congress lost some key by-elections to the Lok Sabha. The political mood of the country had begun to change.

4.9.4 Defence Reforms After 1962

The 1962 war forced India to embark on rapid military modernisation. The Department of Defence Production was set up in November 1962; the Department of Defence Supplies in November 1965. The Third Plan (1961–66) was severely affected as scarce development resources were diverted to defence. India's defence expenditure rose enormously after the wars. The Sino-Indian conflict also affected the opposition: the growing rift between China and the Soviet Union created irreconcilable differences within the Communist Party of India (CPI). The pro-USSR faction stayed within the CPI; the other faction, sometime closer to China, was opposed to ties with the Congress. The party split in 1964, and the latter formed the Communist Party of India (Marxist) — CPI(M). Many leaders of what became the CPI(M) were arrested for being seen as pro-China.

The war also alerted Indian leadership to the volatile situation in the Northeast. The process of reorganisation began soon after: Nagaland was granted statehood, while Manipur and Tripura, though Union Territories, were given the right to elect their own legislative assemblies.

4.9.5 Restoration — The Long Road Back

It took more than a decade for India and China to resume normal relations. Full diplomatic relations were restored in 1976. Atal Bihari Vajpayee, then External Affairs Minister, was the first top-level Indian leader to visit China in 1979. Later, Rajiv Gandhi became the first Prime Minister after Nehru to visit China — in 1988. Border accords followed in 1993 and 1996 to maintain peace and tranquillity along the Line of Actual Control. Relations took a fresh turn with the Wuhan Summit (2018) between Prime Minister Narendra Modi and President Xi Jinping. But the Galwan Valley clash of June 2020 in Ladakh — the first deadly border violence in decades — set the relationship back once more. The story since 1962 has therefore been one of cautious normalisation, punctuated by sharp setbacks.

4.10 Wars and Peace with Pakistan

In the case of Pakistan, the conflict began almost immediately after Partition over the dispute on Jammu and Kashmir. A proxy war broke out between the Indian and Pakistani armies in Jammu and Kashmir during 1947–48. The issue was then referred to the United Nations. Pakistan emerged as a critical factor in India's relations with the US and, later, with China.

The Kashmir conflict did not, however, prevent cooperation between the two governments. They worked together to restore the women abducted during Partition to their families. A long-term dispute about the sharing of river waters was resolved through World Bank mediation. The India–Pakistan Indus Waters Treaty was signed by Nehru and General Ayub Khan in 1960; despite all the ups and downs in Indo-Pak relations, this treaty has worked well.

4.10.1 The 1965 War — Kutch, Kashmir, and the Tashkent Agreement

A more serious armed conflict broke out in 1965. By then, Lal Bahadur Shastri had taken over as Prime Minister. In April 1965, Pakistan launched armed attacks in the Rann of Kutch area of Gujarat. This was followed by a bigger offensive in Jammu and Kashmir in August–September 1965. Pakistani rulers had hoped to draw support from the local population in Kashmir; that support did not come. To ease the pressure on the Kashmir front, Shastri ordered Indian troops to launch a counter-offensive on the Punjab border. In a fierce battle, the Indian army reached close to Lahore.

The hostilities ended with UN intervention. Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri and Pakistan's General Ayub Khan signed the Tashkent Agreement^?, brokered by the Soviet Union, in January 1966. Although India could inflict considerable military loss on Pakistan, the 1965 war added to India's already difficult economic situation.

4.10.2 The Bangladesh War of 1971 — Birth of a Nation

Beginning in 1970, Pakistan faced its biggest internal crisis. The country's first general election produced a split verdict: Zulfikar Ali Bhutto's party emerged the winner in West Pakistan, while the Awami League led by Sheikh Mujib-ur Rahman swept East Pakistan. The Bengali population had voted to protest against being treated as second-class citizens by the West-Pakistan-based rulers. The Pakistani rulers were unwilling to accept the democratic verdict; nor were they ready to accept the Awami League's demand for a federation. Instead, in early 1971, the Pakistani army arrested Sheikh Mujib and unleashed a reign of terror in East Pakistan.

The people started a struggle to liberate "Bangladesh" from Pakistan. Throughout 1971, India had to bear the burden of about 80 lakh refugees who fled East Pakistan. India extended moral and material support to the freedom struggle; the resistance organised itself as the Mukti Bahini^?. Pakistan accused India of a conspiracy to break it up.

Support for Pakistan came from the US and China. The US–China rapprochement begun in the late 1960s realigned forces in Asia. Henry Kissinger, adviser to US President Richard Nixon, made a secret visit to China via Pakistan in July 1971. To counter the US–Pakistan–China axis, India signed a 20-year Treaty of Peace and Friendship with the Soviet Union in August 1971. The treaty assured India of Soviet support if the country faced any attack.

After months of diplomatic tension and military build-up, a full-scale war between India and Pakistan broke out in December 1971. Pakistani aircraft attacked Punjab and Rajasthan; the Pakistani army moved on the Jammu and Kashmir front. India retaliated with a coordinated air force, navy and army attack on both the Western and the Eastern fronts. Welcomed and supported by the local population, the Indian army made rapid progress in East Pakistan. Within ten days the Indian army had surrounded Dhaka from three sides. On 16 December 1971, the Pakistani army of about 90,000 had to surrender (often counted with auxiliary personnel as around 93,000 prisoners of war). With Bangladesh as a free country, India declared a unilateral ceasefire. Later, on 3 July 1972, the signing of the Simla Agreement^? between Indira Gandhi and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto formalised the return of peace.

The decisive victory triggered national jubilation. Most Indians saw it as a moment of glory and a clear sign of India's growing military prowess. Indira Gandhi was Prime Minister at this time; she had already won the Lok Sabha elections in 1971. Her personal popularity soared further after the war. After it, assembly elections in most states brought large majorities for the Congress.

4.10.3 Indo-Soviet Treaty 1971 — A Treaty in the Shadow of War

4.10.4 Kargil 1999 — The Limited War in the Nuclear Age

In the early part of 1999, several points on the Indian side of the Line of Control in the Mashkoh, Dras, Kaksar and Batalik areas were occupied by forces claiming to be Mujahideens. Suspecting involvement of the Pakistan Army, Indian forces reacted; this led to a confrontation between the two countries known as the Kargil conflict. The conflict went on during May and June 1999. By 26 July 1999, India had recovered control of many of the lost points. The Indian operation was called Operation Vijay. The Prime Minister was Atal Bihari Vajpayee, leading the BJP-led NDA government. Kargil drew worldwide attention because just one year earlier both India and Pakistan had attained nuclear capability. The conflict, however, remained confined only to the Kargil region. In Pakistan, it became the source of a major controversy after it was alleged that the Prime Minister of Pakistan was kept in the dark by the Army Chief; soon afterwards, Pakistan's government was taken over by the Army Chief, General Pervez Musharraf.

4.11 Three Wars Compared

4.12 Why Three Wars in Ten Years Did Not Sink the Foreign Policy

India had begun the 1950s with limited resources and a development-first plan. Conflicts with neighbours derailed those Five-Year Plans. Scarce resources had to be diverted to defence — especially after 1962. The Third Plan (1961–66) was severely disrupted; it had to be followed by three Annual Plans before the Fourth Plan could be initiated only in 1969. Defence expenditure rose enormously after the wars. Yet the foreign-policy framework — peace, non-alignment, anti-colonialism — survived. Why? Because in Indian politics there has long been a broad cross-party agreement on national integration, the protection of international borders, and questions of national interest. Even when the Congress lost power and other parties governed, the broad outlines of foreign policy stayed remarkably stable. The Janata government of 1977 announced a return to "genuine non-alignment", and since then all governments — Congress and non-Congress — have taken initiatives both for better relations with China and for closer ties with the US.