This MCQ module is based on: Composition of Population & Exercises
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Composition of Population & Exercises
🎓 Class 12
Social Science
CBSE
Theory
Chapter 1 — Population: Distribution, Density, Growth and Composition
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India Population Composition: Sex Ratio, Literacy and Workforce
NCERT India: People and Economy — Unit I, Chapter 1
What Is Population Composition?
Definition
Population Composition is a distinct field within population geography that studies the structural attributes of a population — age and sex, place of residence, ethnic and tribal characteristics, language, religion, marital status, literacy and education, and occupational characteristics.
For a country as diverse as India, population composition reveals the social fabric of its 1.21 billion (Census 2011) people. This part examines six dimensions: rural-urban composition, linguistic composition, religious composition, working population, sex ratio, and age structure.
Rural – Urban Composition
Composition of population by place of residence is one of the most important indicators of social and economic structure. According to the 2011 Census, about 68.84% of India's population lives in villages, while 31.16% resides in urban areas. India had 640,867 villages in 2011, of which 597,608 (93.2%) were inhabited.
Fig 1.9 — India: Rural vs Urban Population (2011)
Rural India still dominates, but urban share has been rising steadily.
Patterns of Rural Population
The distribution of rural population is uneven. Himachal Pradesh and Bihar have very high percentages of rural population, while Goa and Mizoram have only a little over half their population in villages. Among Union Territories, only Dadra and Nagar Haveli (53.38%) has a substantial rural share. Village size also varies enormously — from less than 200 persons in the hill states of north-east, western Rajasthan and the Rann of Kachchh, to as many as 17,000 persons in some villages of Kerala and Maharashtra.
Urbanisation Trends
Although urbanisation? is at a relatively low 31.16%, the rate of growth of urban population has accelerated thanks to economic development and improvements in health and hygiene. Rapid rural-urban migration is conspicuous along main road and rail corridors of the North Indian Plains, around industrial centres of Kolkata, Mumbai, Bengaluru–Mysuru, Madurai–Coimbatore, Ahmedabad–Surat, Delhi–Kanpur and Ludhiana–Jalandhar. By contrast, urbanisation has remained low in agriculturally stagnant areas of the middle and lower Ganga Plains, Telangana, non-irrigated western Rajasthan, hilly tribal north-east, flood-prone peninsular areas, and eastern Madhya Pradesh.
Linguistic Composition of India
India is a land of unparalleled linguistic diversity. According to Grierson's Linguistic Survey of India (1903–1928), India had 179 languages and as many as 544 dialects. In modern India, there are 22 scheduled languages recognised by the Constitution under the Eighth Schedule?, alongside many non-scheduled languages.
The four broad linguistic families that account for nearly all Indian language speakers are summarised below.
| Family | % of Speakers | Major Branches | Speech Areas |
|---|---|---|---|
| Indo-European (Aryan) | ~73% | Indo-Aryan, Iranian, Dardic | Hindi belt, Punjab, J&K, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Bengal, Odisha, Assam |
| Dravidian | ~20% | South, Central, North Dravidian | Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, parts of MP and Maharashtra |
| Sino-Tibetan (Kirata) | ~0.85% | Tibeto-Himalayan, North Assam, Assam-Myanmari | J&K, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Mizoram, Tripura, Meghalaya |
| Austric (Nishada) | ~1.38% | Mon-Khmer, Munda | Meghalaya, Nicobar Islands, Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal, parts of Bihar, MP, Maharashtra |
Among the scheduled languages, Hindi speakers form the largest share, while Sanskrit, Bodo and Manipuri are the smallest groups (Census 2011). Linguistic regions in India do not have sharp boundaries; rather, they merge and overlap in their frontier zones.
Fig 1.10 — Linguistic Composition of India
Indo-Aryan languages dominate; Dravidian is the second-largest family.
Religious Composition
Religion is one of the most powerful forces shaping India's cultural and political life. The 2011 Census recorded the religious distribution of India's 1,210 million people as follows.
| Religious Group | Population (millions) | % of Total |
|---|---|---|
| Hindus | 966.3 | 79.8 |
| Muslims | 172.2 | 14.2 |
| Christians | 27.8 | 2.3 |
| Sikhs | 20.8 | 1.7 |
| Buddhists | 8.4 | 0.7 |
| Jains | 4.5 | 0.4 |
| Other Religions and Persuasions (ORP) | 7.9 | 0.7 |
| Religion Not Stated | 2.9 | 0.2 |
Fig 1.11 — Religious Composition of India (2011)
Hindus form a clear majority; Muslims constitute the largest religious minority.
Spatial Distribution of Religious Groups
- Hindus — major group across most states (70–90%+) except parts of the Indo-Bangladesh and Indo-Pak borders, J&K, the hill states of the North-East and scattered Deccan and Ganga Plain districts.
- Muslims — largest religious minority. Concentrated in J&K, parts of West Bengal and Kerala, many UP districts, around Delhi, and in Lakshadweep. They form a majority in Kashmir Valley and Lakshadweep.
- Christians — mainly in rural areas; concentrated along the Western coast (Goa, Kerala), and the hill states of Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, parts of Manipur, and the Chotanagpur region.
- Sikhs — concentrated in Punjab, Haryana and Delhi.
- Buddhists — largest concentration in Maharashtra, with significant numbers in Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Ladakh, Tripura and Lahaul-Spiti (HP).
- Jains — mainly urban concentrations in Rajasthan, Gujarat and Maharashtra.
- Other religions — Zoroastrians, tribal and indigenous faiths in scattered pockets.
Religion and Landscape
Religion finds formal expression in the cultural landscape through sacred structures, cemeteries, and groves of plants and animals reserved for religious purposes. From inconspicuous village shrines to monumental Hindu temples, masjids, gurudwaras, monasteries and cathedrals in metropolitan cities — these shape India's distinctive built environment.
Composition of Working Population
India's population is divided by economic status into three groups: main workers, marginal workers and non-workers.
Standard Census Definition
Main Worker?: A person who works for at least 183 days (six months) in a year.Marginal Worker?: A person who works for less than 183 days in a year.
Census 2011 shows that the proportion of working population? (main + marginal) in India is only 39.8%, leaving about 60% as non-workers. This indicates a large dependent population, with significant unemployment or under-employment among the workforce. Work participation rate is the proportion of working population to total population.
State Variation in Work Participation
The work participation rate varies from about 29.1% in Lakshadweep to 51.9% in Himachal Pradesh. States with larger shares of workers include Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur and Meghalaya. Among Union Territories, Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu show higher rates. Generally, work-participation rates tend to be higher in regions with lower levels of economic development — because subsistence economies need many manual workers.
Occupational Structure (2011)
The 2011 Census divides the working population into four major occupational categories:
- Cultivators
- Agricultural Labourers
- Household Industrial Workers
- Other Workers (trade, services, manufacturing, construction)
| Sector | Workers (millions) | % of Total Workers |
|---|---|---|
| Primary (Cultivators + Agricultural Labourers) | 263.0 | 54.6% |
| Secondary (Household Industrial Workers) | 18.3 | 3.8% |
| Tertiary (Other Workers) | 200.4 | 41.6% |
Sectoral Shift
The share of agricultural workers has declined from 58.2% (2001) to 54.6% (2011). Secondary and tertiary participation has correspondingly risen, indicating a shift away from farm-based occupations toward non-farm work.
Spatial variation is pronounced. Himachal Pradesh and Nagaland have very large shares of cultivators. Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Jharkhand, West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh have higher proportions of agricultural labourers. Highly urbanised areas like Delhi, Chandigarh and Puducherry show very large shares of "Other Workers", reflecting urbanisation, industrialisation and limited farmland.
Fig 1.12 — India: Occupational Structure (2011)
Primary sector still dominates, but secondary and tertiary shares are rising.
Beti Bachao — Beti Padhao
Female workers outnumbered by males in all three sectors. The Government of India has launched a nationwide Beti Bachao–Beti Padhao campaign, recognising that gender discrimination — in education, employment, wages and political representation — is, in the words of UNDP HDR 1995, a serious handicap to development: "If development is not engendered, it is endangered."
Sex Ratio: A Mirror of Society
Definition
Sex Ratio?: The number of females per 1,000 males in a population. The child sex ratio? is the same measure restricted to children aged 0–6 years.
According to the 2011 Census, India's overall sex ratio was 940 females per 1,000 males, while the alarming child sex ratio stood at just 919 — a sharp decline from 927 in 2001. The falling child sex ratio remains a major social concern, attributed to female foeticide, son-preference and gender discrimination in nutrition and healthcare. By 2023 estimates, the overall sex ratio in India has improved to about 948 owing to policy interventions and rising female literacy.
| Indicator | 2001 | 2011 |
|---|---|---|
| Overall Sex Ratio (females / 1,000 males) | 933 | 940 |
| Child Sex Ratio (0–6 yrs) | 927 | 919 |
| State with highest sex ratio | Kerala | Kerala (1,084) |
| State with lowest sex ratio | Haryana | Haryana (879) |
Fig 1.13 — India: Sex Ratio Trend (1951–2011)
After bottoming in the 1990s, the sex ratio has shown a slow recovery; child sex ratio has weakened.
Age Composition & the Demographic Pyramid
The age composition of India's population is broad-based — that is, it has a large young base, a relatively narrower middle, and a small elderly apex. Around 35% of Indians were below age 15 in 2011 (now ~26% by 2023), while only about 8% were 60 or older. This structure underwrites the demographic dividend? — a window when the working-age population is at its largest relative to dependants.
Fig 1.14 — India: Age-Sex Pyramid (2011, schematic)
Broad-based pyramid: large young cohorts in the bottom rungs reflect India's demographic dividend window.
Fig 1.15 — India: Age Composition by Broad Group (2011)
Working-age (15–64) group is the largest; the 60+ group will rise as fertility falls.
LET'S EXPLORE — Languages on a 10 Note
L2 Understand
Take an Indian Rs 10 banknote and count the number of distinct languages on it. List those languages and identify their family.
Guidance
A typical Indian banknote shows the denomination in 17 languages — English, Hindi (front), and 15 of the scheduled languages on the reverse: Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Kannada, Kashmiri, Konkani, Malayalam, Marathi, Nepali, Odia, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu and Urdu. They cover all four language families — Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, Sino-Tibetan and Austric.
SOURCE — Pie of Linguistic Composition
L3 Apply
Using Table 1.2 above, prepare a pie diagram showing the sectoral shares of the four language families. Then prepare a qualitative symbol map of India showing the dominant language family in each region.
Guidance
Indo-Aryan slice = ~73%, Dravidian = ~20%, Austric = ~1.4%, Sino-Tibetan = ~0.85%, others = remaining. Use distinct colours for each family. On the symbol map: Indo-Aryan dominates the northern, central and western states; Dravidian covers the four southern states; Sino-Tibetan covers the North-East and Himalayan belt; Austric covers tribal pockets of central-east India and Meghalaya.
DISCUSS — Why Does Bihar Have Few Cities?
L4 Analyse
Bihar has India's largest rural population share among major states, yet it borders the urban-industrial corridor of West Bengal. Discuss the reasons for low urbanisation in Bihar despite its location.
Guidance
Limited industrial base, agricultural stagnation, recurrent floods of the Ganga and Kosi, low capital investment, out-migration of young workers (to Punjab, Delhi, Maharashtra) and the historical division of large urban centres into Jharkhand in 2000 are the main reasons for Bihar's continued rural concentration.
MAP ACTIVITY — Sex Ratio and Religion
L3 Apply
On an outline map of India, mark (a) the state with the highest sex ratio (Kerala) and (b) with the lowest (Haryana). Then identify the states where Muslims, Christians, Sikhs and Buddhists each form a majority or a major share.
Guidance
Sex ratio: Kerala 1,084 (highest), Haryana 879 (lowest). Muslims: J&K (Kashmir Valley), Lakshadweep. Christians: Mizoram, Nagaland, Meghalaya. Sikhs: Punjab. Buddhists: Maharashtra, Sikkim, Ladakh.
📝 Competency-Based Questions (CBQ)
Scenario: Census 2011 records 68.84% rural and 31.16% urban population, an Indo-Aryan share of 73% and Dravidian 20% in the linguistic mix, Hindus 79.8% and Muslims 14.2%, a sex ratio of 940, child sex ratio of 919, working population of 39.8% and primary-sector employment of 54.6%.
Q1. Which of the following correctly arranges religious groups in descending order of share (2011)?
L2 Understand
Q2. Why do work participation rates tend to be higher in less-developed regions of India?
L4 Analyse
Q3. Evaluate the falling child sex ratio in India between 2001 and 2011 in terms of socio-cultural causes.
L5 Evaluate
Q4. Justify: "India's broad-based age pyramid is both an opportunity and a responsibility."
L5 Evaluate
HOT Q. Design a multi-pronged plan to convert India's primary-sector heavy workforce into a more diversified one over the next decade.
L6 Create
✍ Assertion-Reason Questions
Assertion (A): The proportion of agricultural workers in India has declined between 2001 and 2011.
Reason (R): Workers are shifting away from farming towards secondary and tertiary occupations as the economy diversifies.
Reason (R): Workers are shifting away from farming towards secondary and tertiary occupations as the economy diversifies.
Assertion (A): Kerala has the highest sex ratio among Indian states.
Reason (R): Kerala's high female literacy and health indicators have produced a more balanced gender ratio.
Reason (R): Kerala's high female literacy and health indicators have produced a more balanced gender ratio.
Assertion (A): India's population is broadly composed of speakers of the Sino-Tibetan language family.
Reason (R): The Indo-Aryan family alone accounts for about 73% of all Indian-language speakers.
Reason (R): The Indo-Aryan family alone accounts for about 73% of all Indian-language speakers.
NCERT Chapter Exercises
1. Choose the right answer from the given options
(i) India's population as per 2011 Census is:
Answer: (d) 1210 million — The provisional 2011 Census placed India's population at 1,210,193,422.
(ii) Which one of the following states has the highest density of population in India?
Answer: (d) Bihar — Bihar recorded the highest state density at 1,102 persons/sq km in 2011.
(iii) Which one of the following states has the highest proportion of urban population in India according to 2011 Census?
Answer: (d) Goa — Goa recorded 62.17% urban population in 2011, the highest share among states.
(iv) Which one of the following is the largest linguistic group of India?
Answer: (b) Indo-Aryan — The Indo-Aryan family accounts for about 73% of all Indian language speakers, the largest group.
2. Answer in about 30 words
(i) Very hot and dry and very cold and wet regions of India have low density of population. In this light, explain the role of climate on the distribution of population.
Model Answer: Climate strongly conditions habitability. Hot dry deserts (Rajasthan) and cold wet Himalayan and north-eastern hill regions both have harsh climates that limit agriculture, water supply and infrastructure, leading to low population densities. Moderate, well-watered plains support far higher densities.
(ii) Which states have large rural population in India? Give one reason for such large rural population.
Model Answer: Bihar, Himachal Pradesh, Odisha, Uttar Pradesh and Assam have very high rural population shares. The principal reason is the dominance of subsistence agriculture and limited industrial-urban development, which keeps people tied to villages and farm-based livelihoods.
(iii) Why do some states of India have higher rates of work participation than others?
Model Answer: States with subsistence agriculture and tribal economies (e.g. Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Nagaland) have high work-participation because every household member — including women, children and the elderly — needs to engage in productive labour. In more industrialised states, dependents (students, retirees) are more numerous, lowering the rate.
(iv) "The agricultural sector has the largest share of Indian workers." — Explain.
Model Answer: About 54.6% of India's workers (Census 2011) are cultivators or agricultural labourers. The reasons are: predominantly rural population (68.8%), limited industrial absorption, small and fragmented land holdings, and slow growth of the manufacturing sector — all of which keep agriculture the largest employer despite contributing a much smaller share to GDP.
3. Answer in about 150 words
(i) Discuss the spatial pattern of density of population in India.
Model Answer: India's overall density of population in 2011 was 382 persons per sq km, having tripled since 1951 (117/sq km). The spatial pattern is highly uneven. Among states, Bihar (1,102), West Bengal (1,029), Kerala (859) and Uttar Pradesh (828) record the highest densities thanks to fertile alluvial plains, abundant water and a long history of settled agriculture. Northern peninsular states like Tamil Nadu (555) and Karnataka also have high densities. Moderate densities are found in Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, Odisha and Assam. The hill states of the Himalayan and north-eastern region (excluding Assam) have very low densities, with Arunachal Pradesh recording the lowest at just 17 persons per sq km. Among Union Territories, Delhi tops density (11,297), while the Andaman & Nicobar Islands have low density. The pattern reflects the joint operation of physical (climate, terrain, water), socio-economic (agriculture, industry, urbanisation) and historical (long settlement, transport networks) factors.
(ii) Give an account of the occupational structure of India's population.
Model Answer: The 2011 Census categorises India's working population (which is only 39.8% of total population, leaving 60% as non-workers) into four major groups — cultivators, agricultural labourers, household industrial workers, and other workers. The primary sector still dominates: about 54.6% of workers are cultivators (263 million) or agricultural labourers, the secondary sector (household industrial workers) employs only about 3.8% (18 million), and the tertiary sector (other workers including trade, services, manufacturing, construction) employs about 41.6% (200 million). The proportion of agricultural workers has, however, declined from 58.2% in 2001 to 54.6% in 2011, with corresponding gains in secondary and tertiary employment — signalling sectoral diversification. Spatial variation is wide: Himachal Pradesh and Nagaland have very large shares of cultivators; Bihar, AP, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Jharkhand, WB and MP have many agricultural labourers; while Delhi, Chandigarh and Puducherry are dominated by ‘Other Workers’. Male workers outnumber female workers in all sectors, although female participation has risen modestly in secondary and tertiary work.
Chapter Summary
- India is the world's most populous country (~1.43 billion in 2023), home to about 1.21 billion in the 2011 Census — nearly 17.5% of the world's people.
- Distribution is highly uneven: Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh together hold over half the population.
- The 2011 density of 382/sq km ranged from 17/sq km in Arunachal Pradesh to 11,297/sq km in Delhi. Physiological and agricultural densities offer better insights for an agrarian country.
- Population growth has passed through four phases: stagnant (1901–21), steady (1921–51), explosion (1951–81) and high-but-declining (1981–present).
- India's growth aligns with the Demographic Transition Theory; it is now in late Stage 3, approaching Stage 4.
- Rural population: 68.84%; urban: 31.16%. Goa has the highest urban share.
- Linguistic families: Indo-Aryan (~73%), Dravidian (~20%), Austric (~1.4%), Sino-Tibetan (~0.85%); 22 scheduled languages under the Eighth Schedule.
- Religious composition: Hindus 79.8%, Muslims 14.2%, Christians 2.3%, Sikhs 1.7%, Buddhists 0.7%, Jains 0.4%.
- Working population is 39.8% of total; primary 54.6%, secondary 3.8%, tertiary 41.6%.
- Sex ratio (2011): 940 overall, 919 child sex ratio. Kerala (1,084) is highest; Haryana (879) is lowest.
- Age structure is broad-based with adolescents at 20.9% — the basis of India's demographic dividend.
Key Terms & Concepts
CensusA complete enumeration of a population, conducted in India every 10 years.
Population DensityPersons per unit area (usually persons per sq km).
Arithmetic DensityTotal population ÷ total geographical area.
Physiological DensityTotal population ÷ net cultivated area.
Agricultural DensityAgricultural population ÷ net cultivable area.
Crude Birth/Death RateBirths / deaths per 1,000 persons in a year.
Population Doubling TimeYears required for a population to double at its current growth rate.
Demographic TransitionFour-stage model of population change with falling birth and death rates over time.
Demographic DividendEconomic potential when working-age population is large relative to dependants.
Sex RatioNumber of females per 1,000 males.
Child Sex RatioFemales per 1,000 males in age group 0-6 years.
Main WorkerPerson working at least 183 days per year.
Marginal WorkerPerson working less than 183 days per year.
Eighth ScheduleConstitutional list of 22 officially recognised Indian languages.
UrbanisationProcess by which an increasing share of population lives in urban areas.
Work Participation RateWorking population as percentage of total population.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is sex ratio in India?
Sex ratio is the number of females per 1,000 males in a population. India's sex ratio in 2011 was 943 females per 1,000 males, with Kerala highest (1,084) and Haryana lowest (879) among states.
What is the literacy rate in India 2011?
India's literacy rate in 2011 was 74.04 per cent — 82.14% for males and 65.46% for females. Kerala recorded the highest literacy at 93.91% while Bihar had the lowest at 63.82%.
What is work participation rate?
Work participation rate (WPR) is the percentage of total workers (main + marginal) to the total population. India's WPR in 2011 was 39.8 per cent, with male WPR (53.3%) much higher than female WPR (25.5%).
What are the four categories of workers in India?
India's workforce is classified into four categories: cultivators, agricultural labourers, household industry workers, and other workers. Cultivators and agricultural labourers together form the primary-sector workforce.
What is the urban population percentage of India?
According to the 2011 Census, 31.16 per cent of India's population lives in urban areas, while 68.84 per cent lives in rural areas. The urban share has been steadily rising every decade.
How many scheduled languages are listed in the Indian Constitution?
The Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution currently lists 22 scheduled languages, including Hindi, Bengali, Telugu, Marathi, Tamil, Urdu, Gujarati, Kannada, Malayalam and Punjabi.
What is the difference between main workers and marginal workers?
Main workers are those who work for at least 183 days (six months) in a year. Marginal workers are those who work for less than 183 days in a year, often in seasonal occupations.
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