This MCQ module is based on: Bharmaur, IG Canal, Sustainable Development & Exercises
TOPIC 18 OF 27
Bharmaur, IG Canal, Sustainable Development & Exercises
🎓 Class 12
Social Science
CBSE
Theory
Chapter 6 — Planning and Sustainable Development in Indian Context
⏱ ~28 min
🌐 Language: [gtranslate]
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Bharmaur, Indira Gandhi Canal & Sustainable Development — Case Studies + Exercises
NCERT India: People and Economy — Unit III, Chapter 6 (Part 3)
Why Two Case Studies?
Chapter 6 closes with two contrasting case studies:
Bharmaur (HP)
A tribal area in the Himalayas where the Integrated Tribal Development Project demonstrates how target-area planning improves human development indicators.
Indira Gandhi Canal (Rajasthan)
A desert command area where canal irrigation transformed agriculture — but also created waterlogging and salinity, raising the question of sustainability.
Together these two cases let us examine the relationship between planning, development and the environment, and lead naturally into the chapter’s third theme — sustainable development?.
Case Study 1 — Bharmaur Tribal Region (Himachal Pradesh)
The Bharmaur tribal area comprises Bharmaur and Holi tehsils of Chamba district in Himachal Pradesh. It has been a notified tribal area since 21 November 1975. Bharmaur is inhabited by the Gaddi, a tribal community that has maintained a distinct identity in the Himalayan region by practising transhumance? and conversing in the Gaddiali dialect.
Geographical Setting
1,818 km²
Area
39,113
Population (2011)
21 / km²
Density
1,500–3,700 m
Elevation
The region lies between 32° 11′ N – 32° 41′ N latitudes and 76° 22′ E – 76° 53′ E longitudes. It is surrounded by lofty mountains on every side — the Pir Panjal in the north and the Dhaula Dhar in the south, with the extension of the Dhaula Dhar converging with the Pir Panjal near Rohtang Pass in the east.
The river Ravi and its tributaries — the Budhil and the Tundahen — drain the territory and carve deep gorges. These rivers divide the region into four physiographic divisions called Holi, Khani, Kugti and Tundah. Bharmaur experiences freezing weather and snowfall in winter; mean monthly temperature is 4°C in January and 26°C in July.
Fig 6.5 — Location of Bharmaur in Himachal Pradesh (Schematic)
Society & Economy of the Gaddis
Historically, the Gaddis have experienced geographical and political isolation and socio-economic deprivation. Their economy is traditionally based on agriculture and allied activities — sheep and goat rearing — and they had a subsistence agricultural-cum-pastoral economy with emphasis on foodgrains and livestock.
The harsh climate, low resource base and fragile environment have shaped their society. Bharmaur is one of the most economically and socially backward areas of Himachal Pradesh.
Development Began in the 1970s
The process of development of the tribal area of Bharmaur started in the 1970s when the Gaddis were included among the ‘Scheduled Tribes’. Under the Fifth Five Year Plan, the Tribal Sub-Plan? was introduced in 1974, and Bharmaur was designated as one of the five Integrated Tribal Development Projects (ITDPs) in Himachal Pradesh.
The Bharmaur ITDP aimed at improving the quality of life of the Gaddis and narrowing the gap in the level of development between Bharmaur and other areas of Himachal Pradesh. The plan laid the highest priority on:
- Development of transport and communications;
- Development of agriculture and allied activities; and
- Social and community services — schools, healthcare, drinking water.
Outcomes of the ITDP — Strong Social Gains
The most significant contribution of the tribal sub-plan has been the development of infrastructure — schools, healthcare facilities, potable water, roads, communications and electricity. But infrastructure is uneven across the four sub-regions:
| Sub-region | Infrastructure status |
|---|---|
| Holi & Khani (along R. Ravi) | Main beneficiaries — better roads, electricity, schools. |
| Tundah & Kugti (remote interior) | Still insufficient infrastructure, given fragile terrain and isolation. |
Quantifying the Social Benefits
1.88% → 65%
Female literacy 1971→2011
↓
Child marriage
~10%
Households still in transhumance
↑
Sex ratio
The social benefits derived from the ITDP include a tremendous increase in literacy rate, an improvement in sex ratio, and a decline in child marriage. The female literacy rate jumped from 1.88% in 1971 to 65% in 2011, and the gender gap in literacy has also narrowed.
Economic Change — From Pastoralism to Cash Crops
Traditionally, the Gaddis had a subsistence agricultural-cum-pastoral economy. During the last three decades of the twentieth century, the cultivation of pulses and other cash crops increased in the Bharmaur region, although crop cultivation is still done with traditional technology.
The declining importance of pastoralism is striking: only about one-tenth of the total households now practise transhumance. Yet the Gaddis remain very mobile — a sizeable section migrate to Kangra and surrounding areas during winter to earn their living from wage labour.
Discuss in Class — What is ‘social benefit’?
NCERT lists three social benefits of ITDP in Bharmaur: rise in female literacy from 1.88% to 65%, improvement in sex ratio, and decline in child marriage. Discuss why these are called social benefits rather than economic ones, and how they may indirectly raise economic productivity in the long run.
Discussion guide: Social benefits change relationships and opportunities: an educated girl marries later, has fewer and healthier children, joins the labour force, raises household income and decision-making power. Improved sex ratio reflects falling son-preference. Together they mean a healthier, more skilled generation. The economic spillover — higher productivity, lower fertility, better child nutrition — is large but takes 15–25 years to show up in income data. Hence the ‘social’ tag for the immediate effect.
The Idea of Sustainable Development
The term development is used to describe both the state of a society and the process of changes it experiences. For most of human history, society’s state was determined by the interaction between human communities and their biophysical environment, mediated by technology and institutions. Development is therefore a multi-dimensional concept signifying the positive, irreversible transformation of the economy, society and environment.
How the Concept Evolved
| Era | Dominant idea of ‘development’ |
|---|---|
| Post-WW II era | Development = economic growth; measured by temporal increase in Gross National Product (GNP) and per capita income / consumption. |
| 1970s | High-growth countries showed rising poverty due to unequal distribution. New phrases — ‘redistribution with growth’ and ‘growth and equity’ — entered the definition. |
| 1980s | Development now encapsulates wide-spread improvement in social as well as material well-being — education, health, equality of opportunity, political and civil rights. |
| Late 1960s & onwards | Environmental awareness rose in the West. The Population Bomb (Ehrlich, 1968) and The Limits to Growth (Meadows et al., 1972) raised fears about industrial development’s effect on the environment — setting the stage for ‘sustainable development’. |
The Brundtland Definition (1987)
Concerned by the world community’s growing environmental opinion, the United Nations established the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), headed by the Norwegian Prime Minister Gro Harlem Brundtland. The Commission gave its report — also known as the Brundtland Report, titled ‘Our Common Future’ — in 1987.
Brundtland Definition — Sustainable Development
“Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”
— WCED, Our Common Future, 1987
Sustainable development takes care of ecological, social and economic aspects of development during the present and pleads for the conservation of resources so that future generations can use them. It takes the development of the whole human kind — which has a common future — into account.
Fig 6.6 — The Three Pillars of Sustainable Development
Case Study 2 — Indira Gandhi Canal (Nahar) Command Area
The Indira Gandhi Canal?, previously known as the Rajasthan Canal, is one of the largest canal systems in India. It was conceived by Kanwar Sain in 1948 and the canal project was launched on 31 March 1958.
Location and Layout
- The canal originates at the Harike Barrage in Punjab.
- It runs parallel to the Pakistan border at an average distance of 40 km.
- It flows through the Thar Desert (Marusthali) of Rajasthan.
- Total planned length of the system: 9,060 km.
- Total culturable command area: 19.63 lakh hectares.
- About 70% irrigated by flow system; the rest by lift system. Lift canals all originate at the left bank; right-bank canals are flow channels.
Two Stages of Construction
Stage I — Irrigation began early 1960s
Districts: Ganganagar, Hanumangarh and northern Bikaner. Gently undulating topography. Culturable command area: 5.53 lakh ha.
Stage II — Irrigation began mid-1980s
Districts: Bikaner, Jaisalmer, Barmer, Jodhpur, Nagaur and Churu. Desert with shifting sand dunes; summer temperatures touching 50°C. Culturable command area: 14.10 lakh ha.
Fig 6.7 — Indira Gandhi Canal & its Command Area (Schematic)
Transformation — the Positive Side
The introduction of canal irrigation has transformed the ecology, economy and society of an essentially dry land. Soil moisture has been a limiting factor in growing crops in this area; canal irrigation has lifted that constraint. Spread of canal irrigation has led to:
- Increase in cultivated area and intensity of cropping;
- Greening of the land through afforestation and pasture programmes under Command Area Development (CAD)?;
- Reduced wind erosion and reduced siltation of canal systems;
- Replacement of traditional crops — gram, bajra and jowar — by wheat, cotton, groundnut and rice;
- Tremendous increase in agricultural and livestock productivity (initial decades).
Chart — Cropping Pattern Change in IG Canal Command (Pre- and Post-Irrigation)
Pre-irrigation: gram, bajra and jowar dominated — coarse grains adapted to low rainfall. Post-irrigation: wheat, cotton, rice and groundnut have replaced them — water-intensive cash crops feeding the long-run problems of waterlogging and salinity.
The Negative Side — Waterlogging & Salinity
The intensive irrigation and excessive use of water have brought twin environmental problems:
Twin Environmental Problems
(1) Waterlogging — the rising water-table reaches the root zone, suffocating crops. (2) Soil salinity — salts in the percolating water are left behind on the surface as the water evaporates, turning fertile fields white and barren. About 23% of the command is reported affected by these twin problems. In the long run, both hamper the sustainability of agriculture.
Initially, intensive irrigation led to a tremendous increase in agricultural and livestock productivity. But the long-run cost has been declining yields in the affected areas, displacement of original pastoral populations, and ecological imbalance in a fragile desert ecosystem.
Source — The Lining of Water Courses
From the NCERT Chapter
“The CAD programmes such as lining of water courses, land development and levelling and warabandi system shall be effectively implemented to reduce the conveyance loss of water.”
— NCERT, India: People & Economy, Ch.6 (paraphrased)
Q. Explain the three CAD measures named here and how each contributes to sustainability.
Answer guide:
- Lining of water courses — concrete-lined channels prevent seepage, the very mechanism that causes waterlogging.
- Land development & levelling — eliminates ponding and ensures uniform soil-moisture, so cropping intensity does not over-stress one part of the field.
- Warabandi — equal-time-share rotation of canal water across all outlets in the command, preventing head-reach farmers from over-using and tail-end farmers from under-receiving.
Measures for Promotion of Sustainable Development in the IG Canal Command
The ecological sustainability of the Indira Gandhi Canal project has been questioned by various scholars; the course of development over four decades has validated their concern with degradation of the physical environment. Five of the seven measures NCERT lists are aimed at restoring ecological balance.
| # | Measure | Purpose |
|---|---|---|
| (i) | Strict water-management policy | Protective irrigation in Stage I; extensive irrigation of crops & pasture development in Stage II. |
| (ii) | Cropping pattern change — avoid water-intensive crops | Encourage plantation crops such as citrus fruits instead of paddy/sugarcane. |
| (iii) | CAD programmes | Lining of water courses, land development & levelling, warabandi — cuts conveyance loss. |
| (iv) | Reclaim affected land | Areas affected by waterlogging and soil salinity must be reclaimed. |
| (v) | Eco-development | Afforestation, shelter-belt plantation and pasture development — especially in the fragile Stage II. |
| (vi) | Social sustainability | Provide land allottees of poor economic background adequate financial and institutional support for cultivation. |
| (vii) | Economic sustainability | Diversify economic base beyond agriculture and animal husbandry; build linkages between basic villages, agro-service centres and market centres. |
Sustainable Development Strategies for India
Drawing on Bharmaur, IG Canal and similar experiences across India, geographers and policy-makers have suggested several broad strategies for the country as a whole.
Rainwater Harvesting
Roof-top tanks, percolation pits, traditional tankas and khadins — reduce dependence on canal/groundwater.
Organic Farming & Agroforestry
Reduce chemical-fertiliser load on soil; integrate trees with crops to improve soil health and biodiversity.
Social & Joint Forest Management
Communities co-manage degraded forests with the Forest Department, sharing both responsibility and produce.
Biodiversity Conservation & Eco-tourism
Wildlife sanctuaries, biosphere reserves; eco-tourism brings income to local communities while protecting habitat.
India has also launched the National Mission for Sustainable Habitat as part of the National Action Plan on Climate Change — promoting energy-efficient buildings, public transport, urban waste management and resilient urban infrastructure.
On the Map — Mark the IG Canal Command
On a blank political map of Rajasthan, locate (i) Harike barrage, (ii) the canal alignment 40 km parallel to the Pakistan border, (iii) Stage I districts (Ganganagar, Hanumangarh, northern Bikaner), (iv) Stage II districts (Bikaner, Jaisalmer, Barmer, Jodhpur, Nagaur, Churu) and (v) hatch the areas reportedly affected by waterlogging and salinity.
Tip: Use a blue line for canal, hatched green for Stage I, hatched orange for Stage II, and red diagonal hatching for waterlogged/saline patches near the canal in Ganganagar, Hanumangarh and northern Bikaner. Add a north arrow and scale.
NCERT Exercises — Full Model Answers
1. Choose the right answers (MCQ)
(i) Regional planning relates to:
L1 Remember
Answer: (b) Area specific approach of development. Regional planning aims to reduce regional imbalances by drawing up area-specific schemes.
(ii) ITDP refers to which one of the following?
L1 Remember
Answer: (c) Integrated Tribal Development Programme. Bharmaur was designated as one of the five ITDPs of Himachal Pradesh under the Tribal Sub-Plan introduced in 1974.
(iii) Which one of the following is the most crucial factor for sustainable development in Indira Gandhi Canal Command Area?
L3 Apply
Answer: (b) Eco-development. Five of the seven measures NCERT proposes for the IG Canal command are aimed at restoring ecological balance — afforestation, shelter-belt plantation, pasture development, lining of water courses, and reclamation of waterlogged/saline land. Without eco-development the agricultural gains will not be sustainable.
2. Answer in about 30 words
(i) What are the social benefits of ITDP in the Bharmaur tribal region?
Answer: The social benefits of the ITDP in Bharmaur include a tremendous increase in literacy — female literacy rose from 1.88% in 1971 to 65% in 2011 — an improvement in sex ratio, and a decline in child marriage. Schools, healthcare and roads now reach most villages.
(ii) Define the concept of sustainable development.
Answer: Sustainable development is “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (Brundtland Report, 1987). It balances ecological, social and economic concerns and pleads for resource conservation.
(iii) What are the positive impacts of irrigation on Indira Gandhi Canal Command Area?
Answer: Canal irrigation increased soil moisture, raised cultivated area and cropping intensity, replaced traditional dryland crops (gram, bajra, jowar) with wheat, cotton, rice and groundnut, sharply boosted agricultural and livestock productivity, and the afforestation under CAD reduced wind erosion in the Thar Desert.
3. Answer in about 150 words
(i) Write short notes on Drought-Prone Area Programme. How does this programme help in the development of dryland agriculture in India?
Answer: The Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP) was initiated during the Fourth Five Year Plan in 1973–74 with two objectives — providing employment to people in drought-prone areas and creating productive assets. It originally relied on labour-intensive civil works and later expanded to irrigation projects, land development, afforestation, grassland development, and basic rural infrastructure (electricity, roads, markets, credit, services).
The 1967 Planning Commission identified 67 drought-prone districts; the 1972 Irrigation Commission introduced the criterion of 30% irrigated area; the 1981 National Committee recommended an integrated watershed development approach at the micro-level. DPAP zones cover Rajasthan, Gujarat, western MP, Marathwada, Rayalseema, Telangana plateau, Karnataka plateau and interior Tamil Nadu.
Help to dryland agriculture: DPAP shifts focus from rain-fed gambling to drought-proofing — check-dams and percolation pits raise groundwater; contour bunding cuts soil loss; grassland development supports livestock; afforestation buffers wind erosion; alternative employment reduces over-cultivation of marginal lands. Together these measures restore ecological balance between water, soil, plants and human-animal populations — the heart of dryland agricultural sustainability.
The 1967 Planning Commission identified 67 drought-prone districts; the 1972 Irrigation Commission introduced the criterion of 30% irrigated area; the 1981 National Committee recommended an integrated watershed development approach at the micro-level. DPAP zones cover Rajasthan, Gujarat, western MP, Marathwada, Rayalseema, Telangana plateau, Karnataka plateau and interior Tamil Nadu.
Help to dryland agriculture: DPAP shifts focus from rain-fed gambling to drought-proofing — check-dams and percolation pits raise groundwater; contour bunding cuts soil loss; grassland development supports livestock; afforestation buffers wind erosion; alternative employment reduces over-cultivation of marginal lands. Together these measures restore ecological balance between water, soil, plants and human-animal populations — the heart of dryland agricultural sustainability.
(ii) Suggest the measures of promotion of sustainability in Indira Gandhi Canal Command Area.
Answer: NCERT lists seven measures — five ecological and two socio-economic.
(i) Strict water-management policy — protective irrigation in Stage I and extensive irrigation plus pasture development in Stage II.
(ii) Cropping-pattern change — avoid water-intensive crops; encourage plantation crops such as citrus fruits.
(iii) Effective CAD programmes — lining of water courses to stop seepage, land development & levelling, and warabandi (equal canal-water rotation) to cut conveyance losses.
(iv) Reclamation of areas already affected by waterlogging and soil salinity.
(v) Eco-development through afforestation, shelter-belt plantations and pasture development — particularly in the fragile Stage II.
(vi) Social sustainability — provide land-allottees of poor economic background adequate financial and institutional support so that they can actually cultivate the land.
(vii) Economic sustainability — diversify the economic base beyond agriculture and animal husbandry, and build functional linkages between basic villages, agro-service centres and market centres.
Together these measures address the twin environmental problems of waterlogging and salinity while making development inclusive across the social and economic spheres.
(i) Strict water-management policy — protective irrigation in Stage I and extensive irrigation plus pasture development in Stage II.
(ii) Cropping-pattern change — avoid water-intensive crops; encourage plantation crops such as citrus fruits.
(iii) Effective CAD programmes — lining of water courses to stop seepage, land development & levelling, and warabandi (equal canal-water rotation) to cut conveyance losses.
(iv) Reclamation of areas already affected by waterlogging and soil salinity.
(v) Eco-development through afforestation, shelter-belt plantations and pasture development — particularly in the fragile Stage II.
(vi) Social sustainability — provide land-allottees of poor economic background adequate financial and institutional support so that they can actually cultivate the land.
(vii) Economic sustainability — diversify the economic base beyond agriculture and animal husbandry, and build functional linkages between basic villages, agro-service centres and market centres.
Together these measures address the twin environmental problems of waterlogging and salinity while making development inclusive across the social and economic spheres.
Project Work
Project (NCERT)
(i) Find out the area development programmes being implemented in your region. Assess their impact on the society and economy in your locality.
(ii) Select your own area or identify an area facing severe environmental and socio-economic problems. Make an assessment of its resources and prepare an inventory. Suggest measures for its sustainable development — on the lines of the IG Canal Command case.
Assertion & Reason — Bharmaur, IG Canal & Sustainable Development
Assertion (A): Female literacy in Bharmaur rose from 1.88% in 1971 to 65% in 2011.
Reason (R): The Tribal Sub-Plan introduced in 1974 designated Bharmaur as an Integrated Tribal Development Project and built schools, healthcare and roads.
Reason (R): The Tribal Sub-Plan introduced in 1974 designated Bharmaur as an Integrated Tribal Development Project and built schools, healthcare and roads.
Correct: (A) — Both statements are true. The literacy jump and the ITDP schools-healthcare-roads investment are causally linked; this is one of the textbook successes of target-area planning in India.
Assertion (A): Intensive canal irrigation in the Indira Gandhi Canal Command has caused waterlogging and soil salinity.
Reason (R): Excessive use of water raises the water-table to the root zone and brings dissolved salts to the surface as the water evaporates.
Reason (R): Excessive use of water raises the water-table to the root zone and brings dissolved salts to the surface as the water evaporates.
Correct: (A) — This is precisely the mechanism NCERT describes; both A and R are true, and R correctly explains A.
Assertion (A): The Brundtland definition of sustainable development is ‘development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’.
Reason (R): The World Commission on Environment and Development was headed by the Norwegian Prime Minister Gro Harlem Brundtland and submitted the report ‘Our Common Future’ in 1987.
Reason (R): The World Commission on Environment and Development was headed by the Norwegian Prime Minister Gro Harlem Brundtland and submitted the report ‘Our Common Future’ in 1987.
Correct: (B) — Both statements are true (the definition was given in the 1987 WCED report), but R is the source/origin of the definition rather than its logical explanation; the definition stands on its own ethical reasoning, not on who chaired the Commission.
Chapter Summary
Concept of Planning: The deliberate cycle of thinking, formulating and implementing actions to achieve goals. Two approaches — sectoral (by sector of economy) and regional (by area).
India’s Planning History: Planning Commission set up on 15 March 1950 with Nehru as first Chairperson; 12 Five Year Plans ran 1951–2017 with two interruptions (1966–69, 1978–80). NITI Aayog — National Institution for Transforming India — replaced the Commission on 1 January 2015. Cooperative federalism, no fund-allocation power, advisory think-tank role; 3-year + 7-year + 15-year documents; Governing Council of all CMs and UT Lt. Governors.
Target Area Planning: DPAP (1973–74), DDP (1977–78), HADP (1975–76, 15 districts), TSP (1974), ITDP, CAD; SFDA / MFDA target-group programmes; Aspirational Districts Programme (2018, 112 districts); MGNREGA (2005); SAGY (2014); PMGSY (2000).
Bharmaur Case Study: Notified tribal area since 21 November 1975, home of the Gaddi tribe; ITDP transformed female literacy (1.88% → 65%), sex ratio and infrastructure; transhumance now down to ~10% of households.
Sustainable Development: Brundtland (1987) — meeting present needs without compromising future generations. Three pillars — economic, social, environmental.
Indira Gandhi Canal: Conceived 1948 (Kanwar Sain), launched 31 March 1958, originates at Harike Barrage, runs 9,060 km parallel to Pakistan border through Thar; CCA 19.63 lakh ha. Brought greening, cropping diversification (wheat, cotton, rice, groundnut) but also waterlogging and salinity. Seven measures for sustainability — five ecological, two socio-economic.
Strategies for India: Rainwater harvesting, organic farming, agroforestry, social & joint forest management, biodiversity conservation, eco-tourism, National Mission for Sustainable Habitat.
Key Terms
Planning
Deliberate process of thinking, formulating & implementing a scheme to achieve a stated economic goal.
Five Year Plan
A medium-term central economic plan; India ran 12 such plans (1951–2017).
Planning Commission
Advisory body of GoI (15 March 1950 — 31 Dec 2014) that allocated Plan funds to States.
NITI Aayog
National Institution for Transforming India; replaced the Planning Commission on 1 January 2015.
Cooperative Federalism
Centre and States working as partners; embodied in the NITI Aayog Governing Council.
Target Area Planning
Directing extra resources to specific underdeveloped areas to reduce regional disparities.
DPAP
Drought Prone Area Programme (1973–74) — employment + productive assets in semi-arid areas.
DDP
Desert Development Programme (1977–78) — combats desertification in hot & cold deserts.
HADP
Hill Area Development Programme (1975–76) — covered 15 hill districts.
TSP
Tribal Sub-Plan (1974) — earmarks Plan funds for tribal-development schemes.
ITDP
Integrated Tribal Development Project — cluster of contiguous tribal blocks; e.g. Bharmaur.
Aspirational Districts
112 most-backward districts identified by NITI Aayog (2018) for accelerated transformation.
MGNREGA
Mahatma Gandhi NREGA (2005) — 100 days of guaranteed rural wage employment.
SAGY
Sansad Adarsh Gram Yojana (2014) — one model village per MP by 2019, two more by 2024.
PMGSY
Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (2000) — rural all-weather road connectivity.
Bharmaur
Tribal area in Chamba district, HP; notified tribal area since 21 November 1975.
Gaddi Tribe
Pastoral community of Bharmaur; speaks Gaddiali; traditionally practises transhumance.
Transhumance
Seasonal movement of pastoralists with livestock between fixed summer & winter pastures.
Indira Gandhi Canal
9,060 km canal in Thar Desert; conceived 1948, launched 31 March 1958; CCA 19.63 lakh ha.
Waterlogging
Rise of the water table to the root zone of crops, suffocating roots and reducing yields.
Soil Salinity
Accumulation of salts on the soil surface as irrigation water evaporates — renders soil barren.
CAD
Command Area Development — programmes to maximise irrigation efficiency in canal commands.
Warabandi
Equal-time-share rotation of canal water across all outlets in a command area.
Sustainable Development
Development that meets present needs without compromising future generations (Brundtland, 1987).
Brundtland Report
Our Common Future — the 1987 WCED report that defined sustainable development.
Eco-tourism
Tourism in natural areas that conserves environment and benefits local people.
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