This MCQ module is based on: Agrarian Crisis, Green Revolution & Exercises
TOPIC 9 OF 27
Agrarian Crisis, Green Revolution & Exercises
🎓 Class 12
Social Science
CBSE
Theory
Chapter 3 — Land Resources and Agriculture
⏱ ~28 min
🌐 Language: [gtranslate]
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Indian Agriculture: Green Revolution, Issues and Sustainable Trends
NCERT India: People and Economy — Unit III, Chapter 3, Part 3
Agricultural Development in India: An Overview
Indian agriculture in 1947 was a portrait of distress. The economy was largely subsistence, the first half of the twentieth century had been scarred by severe droughts and famines, and Partition handed about one-third of undivided India's irrigated land over to Pakistan — sharply reducing the proportion of irrigated land in the new India.
The immediate goal of the new Government was to raise foodgrain output by three means: (i) switching from cash crops to food crops, (ii) intensifying cropping on already-cultivated land, and (iii) extending the cultivated area by bringing fallow and culturable land under the plough. This strategy worked in the early years but stagnated in the late 1950s. Two consecutive droughts in the mid-1960s threw the country into a food crisis, and India had to import foodgrains.
Fig 3.6 — Timeline of Agricultural Development in India (1950 – Present)
Each phase reflects the dominant strategy of the State and the unique pressures of its decade.
Phase 1 — Institutional Reforms (1950s – 1960s)
The Indian peasantry had been exploited under three colonial revenue systems — Mahalwari, Ryotwari and the highly oppressive Zamindari. After Independence, land reforms were given priority: abolition of intermediaries, imposition of land ceilings, consolidation of holdings, and tenancy reforms. But political will was weak; landlord lobbies were strong. As a result, reforms were implemented unevenly, and inequitable land distribution persisted in much of the country.
Phase 2 — The Green Revolution (mid-1960s – 1980s)
By the mid-1960s, new High-Yielding Varieties (HYVs)? of wheat (from Mexico, Norman Borlaug's Norin 10-derived strains) and rice (the IR-8 from the Philippines) became available. Working under the leadership of Indian agricultural scientist M.S. Swaminathan?, India introduced a package technology of HYVs, chemical fertilisers, pesticides and irrigation in Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat. Foodgrain production shot up, agro-input and agro-processing industries flourished, and by the 1970s India had become self-reliant in foodgrains. This spurt is known as the Green Revolution?.
The benefits were initially confined to irrigated tracts, creating sharp regional disparities. After 1970, the technology slowly spread to eastern and central India.
Phase 3 — Diversification (1980s – 1990s)
The Planning Commission turned its attention to rainfed agriculture and launched agro-climatic planning in 1988 to induce regionally balanced development. Diversification became the key word: dairy farming (the White Revolution – Operation Flood), poultry, horticulture, livestock rearing and aquaculture (the Blue Revolution) all expanded. Oilseeds development gave rise to the Yellow Revolution.
Phase 4 — Liberalisation & Agrarian Crisis (1990s – 2000s)
The 1991 reforms opened agriculture to a freer market. Growth in agricultural output, however, slowed. Modern inputs became expensive, marginal farmers without savings turned to moneylenders, and crop failures pushed many into a debt trap. The result was the tragic phenomenon of farmer suicides in Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Punjab and Kerala.
Phase 5 — Sustainability and Doubling Income (2000s – Today)
The National Policy on Agriculture (2000) aimed at sustainable, efficient, equitable and ecologically sound agriculture. The Doubling Farmers' Income mission (2018) set a target of doubling real farm incomes by 2022. Schemes such as Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY), Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY) and the National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) push organic farming, soil-and-moisture conservation and climate-resilient cropping. The era has also seen the rise of agri-tech — mobile-based market platforms, satellite advisory, farm-mechanisation services and the digital Farmer's Portal of India.
Growth of Agricultural Output and Technology
The last fifty years have seen real gains:
- Production and yield of rice and wheat have risen impressively. Sugarcane, oilseeds and cotton output has also grown.
- Expansion of irrigation has been crucial — it laid the foundation for HYV seeds, chemical fertilisers, pesticides and farm machinery.
- Modern technology has diffused widely. Consumption of chemical fertilisers has multiplied 15 times since the mid-1960s; pesticide use has likewise surged.
Fig 3.7 — India's Foodgrain Production Trend (Million Tonnes)
From under 55 MT in 1950-51 to over 320 MT today — the cumulative legacy of irrigation, HYVs and policy support.
SOURCE — Reading the Foodgrain Trend
L4 Analyse
Examine Fig 3.7. Identify the decade with the steepest rise in foodgrain production. What government strategies of that decade are likely to have caused the surge?
Guidance
The steepest rise occurred during the 1965–1975 decade, the years of the Green Revolution. The package of HYV seeds (wheat from Mexico, rice from the Philippines), expansion of tubewell irrigation, subsidised fertilisers, and assured procurement at Minimum Support Prices (MSP) together transformed Punjab, Haryana and western UP into the country's grain bowl.
Problems of Indian Agriculture
The problems of Indian agriculture are uneven across regions, but several recur from one state to the next. They range from physical constraints to deep-rooted institutional flaws.
Dependence on Erratic Monsoon
Irrigation covers only about 33 per cent of cultivated area. The rest depends directly on rainfall. Poor monsoons also reduce canal water. Drought-prone Rajasthan and even high-rainfall belts swing between drought and flood — e.g. flash floods in Maharashtra, Gujarat and Rajasthan in 2006 and 2017.
Low Productivity
Per-hectare yields of rice, wheat, cotton and oilseeds in India are well below those of the USA, Russia and Japan. Labour productivity too is low because of high pressure on land and the dominance of rainfed dryland cropping.
Indebtedness
Modern inputs are expensive. Marginal and small farmers, with little or no savings, depend on credit from banks and moneylenders. Crop failures lock them into a debt trap; farmer suicides are the most tragic symptom.
Lack of Land Reforms
Of the three colonial revenue systems — Mahalwari, Ryotwari, Zamindari — the last was the most exploitative. After 1947, post-Independence land reforms were not implemented effectively because state governments avoided alienating landlord lobbies.
Small & Fragmented Holdings
Around 86 per cent of Indian farmers are small or marginal (own less than 2 ha). Average holding size keeps shrinking under population pressure, and successive divisions among heirs further fragment the land. Such tiny holdings are uneconomic.
Lack of Commercialisation
Most small farmers grow foodgrains for their family. Modernisation and commercial cropping have taken root mainly in the irrigated belts.
Vast Underemployment
In unirrigated tracts, seasonal unemployment lasts 4 to 8 months. Even within the cropping season, work is not available continuously, leaving rural labour idle for much of the year.
Land Degradation
Faulty irrigation has caused alkalisation, salinisation and waterlogging across vast tracts. Excessive pesticides accumulate to toxic levels. Multiple cropping has shortened fallow durations and obliterated natural nitrogen fixation. Rainfed areas suffer wind and water erosion.
THINK ABOUT IT — The Punjab Paradox
L4 Analyse
Punjab achieved India's highest crop yields and the highest farm incomes after the Green Revolution. Yet today it has among the country's worst water-table crises, soil-salinity problems, and rural debt. How can the same package of policies have produced both the success and the crisis?
Guidance
The Green Revolution package raised yields by flooding the system with water and chemicals. Free electricity for tubewells over decades depleted aquifers. Repeated paddy-wheat rotations — encouraged by MSP — salinated the soil and obliterated nitrogen fixation. Marginal farmers borrowed to keep buying ever-more-costly inputs and slid into debt. The same intensive approach that fed India is now exhausting Punjab's land and water.
DISCUSS — MSP, Farm Laws Repeal and the Future
L5 Evaluate
The three farm laws of 2020 were meant to deregulate agricultural markets. They were repealed in 2021 after sustained farmers' protests. What does this episode tell us about the place of Minimum Support Prices (MSP)? and procurement in Indian agriculture? Discuss two reforms that might earn farmers' trust.
Guidance
MSP and procurement are perceived by farmers as the only safety net against market volatility. Reforms succeed when they add protection rather than withdraw it. Two trust-building reforms: (i) legal guarantee of MSP for major crops alongside private trade; (ii) creation of farmer-producer organisations (FPOs) with cold storage, transport and market access — so that farmers can both negotiate fair prices and diversify away from paddy-wheat monoculture.
MAP ACTIVITY — Agricultural Hot-Spots and Crisis Zones
L3 Apply
On an outline map of India, mark with appropriate shading:
- Three Green Revolution belts: Punjab–Haryana, western UP, the irrigated AP delta.
- Three drought-prone areas: western Rajasthan, Marathwada, Rayalaseema.
- Two states with high incidence of farmer suicides: Maharashtra, Telangana.
- Areas under organic farming push: Sikkim (first fully organic state), Uttarakhand hill belt.
Guidance
Place the Green Revolution belts in the north-west and along the alluvial plains. Drought belts cluster in the western Deccan and the Thar fringe. Farmer-suicide hotspots align with Marathwada, Vidarbha, Telangana and parts of Karnataka. Sikkim was declared India's first fully organic state in 2016.
📝 Competency-Based Questions (CBQ)
Scenario: Indian agriculture has moved through five phases — from post-Independence land reforms, through the Green Revolution and diversification, into a period of agrarian crisis, and finally towards a sustainable, technology-driven future. Today, around 86% of farmers hold less than two hectares of land. Climate change, soil degradation and groundwater depletion test the resilience of the entire system.
Q1. In which group of countries were the HYVs of wheat and rice that powered India's Green Revolution developed?
L1 Remember
Q2. Which is the main form of land degradation in irrigated areas?
L2 Understand
Q3. A farmer in Vidarbha owns 1.2 hectares of rainfed land split across four parcels. He grows cotton on a quarter, soyabean on another quarter, and leaves the rest fallow. List three structural problems in this case and propose three remedies.
L4 Analyse
Q4. Examine the strategies for agricultural development followed by India in the post-Independence period. To what extent have they succeeded in delivering food security and farmer welfare?
L5 Evaluate
HOT Q. Suppose the Indian Government wishes to make the next phase of agriculture both climate-resilient and income-doubling. Design a 5-pillar national policy that addresses water, soil, market, technology, and equity. Justify each pillar.
L6 Create
✍ Assertion-Reason Questions
Assertion (A): The Green Revolution initially created sharp regional disparities in Indian agriculture.
Reason (R): The package of HYV seeds, fertilisers and pesticides required assured irrigation, which was available only in select irrigated belts of Punjab, Haryana, western UP, AP and Gujarat.
Reason (R): The package of HYV seeds, fertilisers and pesticides required assured irrigation, which was available only in select irrigated belts of Punjab, Haryana, western UP, AP and Gujarat.
Assertion (A): Farmer indebtedness is a major problem in Indian agriculture.
Reason (R): Marginal and small farmers have surplus savings to invest in modern inputs.
Reason (R): Marginal and small farmers have surplus savings to invest in modern inputs.
Assertion (A): Salinisation, alkalisation and waterlogging are particularly alarming forms of land degradation in India.
Reason (R): A faulty strategy of irrigation and excessive use of chemicals such as insecticides and pesticides have led to a loss of soil fertility in irrigated tracts.
Reason (R): A faulty strategy of irrigation and excessive use of chemicals such as insecticides and pesticides have led to a loss of soil fertility in irrigated tracts.
NCERT Exercises — Full Model Answers
1. Choose the right answers (MCQs)
(i) Which one of the following is NOT a land-use category?
(a) Fallow land (b) Marginal land (c) Net Area Sown (d) Culturable Wasteland
Answer: (b) Marginal land. The nine standard land-use categories used in revenue records are forests, barren and wastelands, non-agricultural use, permanent pastures, miscellaneous tree crops/groves, culturable wasteland, current fallow, fallow other than current, and net area sown. "Marginal land" is not one of them.
(ii) What is the main reason for the increase in share of forest in the last forty years?
(a) Extensive afforestation (b) Increase in community forest land (c) Increase in notified area allocated for forest growth (d) Better people's participation
Answer: (c) Increase in notified area allocated for forest growth. Forest area in revenue records is the area officially demarcated by the Government for forest growth, irrespective of actual tree cover. Hence the recorded share rises even when actual forest cover does not grow.
(iii) Which one of the following is the main form of degradation in irrigated areas?
(a) Gully erosion (b) Wind erosion (c) Salinisation of soils (d) Siltation of land
Answer: (c) Salinisation of soils. Prolonged irrigation without proper drainage causes salts to rise to the surface; alkalisation and waterlogging are companion problems. Gully and wind erosion are typical of rainfed drylands.
(iv) Which one of the following crops is NOT cultivated under dryland farming?
(a) Ragi (b) Jowar (c) Groundnut (d) Sugarcane
Answer: (d) Sugarcane. Sugarcane is highly water-intensive and is grown under irrigation. Ragi, jowar and groundnut are typical drought-tolerant dryland crops sown under rainfed conditions of less than 75 cm annual rainfall.
(v) In which group of countries were the HYVs of wheat and rice developed?
(a) Japan and Australia (b) USA and Japan (c) Mexico and Philippines (d) Mexico and Singapore
Answer: (c) Mexico and Philippines. Wheat HYVs were developed by Norman Borlaug at CIMMYT, Mexico (drawing on Japan's Norin 10 strain); rice variety IR-8 was developed at IRRI, the Philippines. India introduced both in the mid-1960s under M.S. Swaminathan's leadership.
2. Short-Answer Questions (about 30 words)
(i) Differentiate between barren and wasteland and culturable wasteland.
Answer: Barren and wasteland — barren hilly tracts, ravines, deserts — cannot be brought under cultivation with available technology. Culturable wasteland — land left fallow for more than five years — can be cultivated again after reclamation.
(ii) How would you distinguish between net sown area and gross cropped area?
Answer: Net Sown Area (NSA) is the physical extent of land on which crops are sown in a year, counted only once. Gross Cropped Area (GCA) counts the same land twice or thrice if it is cropped more than once. GCA / NSA × 100 gives cropping intensity.
(iii) Why is the strategy of increasing cropping intensity important in a country like India?
Answer: Net sown area has plateaued near 46% and the scope for further expansion is limited. Higher cropping intensity raises output per hectare without using new land and creates additional rural employment, easing seasonal underemployment in this land-scarce, labour-abundant country.
(iv) How do you measure total cultivable land?
Answer: Total cultivable land = Net Sown Area + All Fallow Lands (current and other than current) + Culturable Wasteland. It represents the entire stock of land that is cultivated or could be brought under cultivation.
(v) What is the difference between dryland and wetland farming?
Answer: Dryland farming — in regions with annual rainfall less than 75 cm; hardy drought-resistant crops such as ragi, bajra, moong, gram and guar are grown along with rainwater harvesting. Wetland farming — in regions where rainfall exceeds soil-moisture needs; water-intensive crops like rice, jute and sugarcane are grown, sometimes with aquaculture.
3. Long-Answer Questions (about 150 words)
(i) What are the different types of environmental problems of land resources in India?
Answer: India's land resources face several environmental pressures. (1) Soil degradation in irrigated tracts due to faulty irrigation strategy: alkalisation, salinisation and waterlogging have made vast areas less fertile. (2) Chemical contamination: insecticides and pesticides used excessively in Green Revolution belts have built up to toxic levels in the soil profile. (3) Loss of natural fertility: leguminous nitrogen-fixing crops have been displaced from cropping rotations and fallow durations have shrunk because of multiple cropping — both reducing the soil's natural capacity to recover. (4) Erosion in rainfed areas: humid and semi-arid tropics suffer water and wind erosion, often induced by deforestation, faulty tillage and overgrazing of common lands. (5) Pressure on Common Property Resources (CPRs) is increasing as community pastures shrink, harming livestock-dependent landless families. Together these problems threaten long-term agricultural sustainability and demand integrated soil-and-water conservation.
(ii) What are the important strategies for agricultural development followed in the post-Independence period in India?
Answer: India's post-Independence agricultural strategy moved through five phases. Phase 1 (1950s-60s): institutional reforms — abolition of zamindari, land ceiling laws, consolidation of holdings and tenancy reforms — though weakly implemented. The IADP and IAAP programmes intensified cropping. Phase 2 (mid-1960s-1980s — Green Revolution): introduction of HYV seeds (wheat from Mexico, rice IR-8 from the Philippines) under M.S. Swaminathan, alongside fertilisers, pesticides and assured irrigation in Punjab, Haryana, western UP, AP and Gujarat. India became self-reliant in foodgrains, but regional disparities widened. Phase 3 (1980s-90s): agro-climatic planning (1988) and diversification — the White Revolution in dairying, the Yellow Revolution in oilseeds and the Blue Revolution in fisheries. Phase 4 (1990s-2000s): liberalisation, slowing growth, agrarian distress and farmer suicides. Phase 5 (2000s onwards): National Policy on Agriculture (2000), NMSA, PKVY/RKVY, and the Doubling Farmers' Income mission, with a focus on sustainable, climate-resilient and technology-enabled agriculture.
📚 Key Terms
Reporting AreaThe total area for which land use statistics are reported by the Land Revenue Department.
Geographical AreaThe fixed area of an administrative unit measured by the Survey of India.
Common Property Resource (CPR)Community-owned land where every member has the right of access and use.
Net Sown Area (NSA)The physical extent of land actually under crops in a year.
Gross Cropped Area (GCA)Total area under all crops in a year, counting double-cropped land twice.
Cropping Intensity(GCA/NSA)×100. Indicates how often the same land is cropped each year.
KharifMonsoon cropping season — June to September.
RabiWinter cropping season — October to March.
ZaidShort summer cropping season — April to June, irrigated.
HYV (High-Yielding Variety)Genetically improved seeds of wheat (Mexico) and rice (IR-8, Philippines).
Green RevolutionThe mid-1960s package of HYV seeds, irrigation, fertilisers and pesticides.
Bt CottonGenetically modified, pest-resistant cotton variety widely adopted in India.
MSPMinimum Support Price — floor price guaranteed by the Government for major crops.
Subsistence FarmingFarming primarily for the family's own consumption.
Commercial FarmingFarming for sale in the market.
PlantationCapital-intensive cultivation of a single perennial crop on large estates — tea, coffee, rubber.
Doubling Farmers' Income2018 government mission to double real farm income by 2022.
Organic FarmingCultivation without chemical fertilisers and pesticides; promoted by PKVY.
Agrarian CrisisThe period of declining farm growth, indebtedness and farmer suicides post-1990s.
NMSANational Mission for Sustainable Agriculture.
📝 Chapter 3 Summary
- Land use is recorded under nine categories by the Land Revenue Department, summing to the reporting area, which is slightly different from the fixed geographical area.
- Net area sown has plateaued at about 46% of reporting area; non-agricultural use has grown fastest while barren and culturable wastelands have declined.
- Common Property Resources (CPRs) — village pastures, ponds and groves — are crucial for the rural poor, especially for women's daily fuel and fodder collection.
- India has three cropping seasons: kharif (Jun-Sep), rabi (Oct-Mar), zaid (Apr-Jun). Southern India can grow tropical crops year-round.
- Foodgrains occupy two-thirds of cropped area; cereals alone are 54%. Rice (West Bengal, UP, Punjab) and wheat (UP, Punjab, Haryana) dominate.
- Cotton (Maharashtra, Gujarat) and jute (West Bengal) are the chief fibre crops; sugarcane peaks in UP and Maharashtra; tea in Assam, coffee in Karnataka.
- The Green Revolution of the mid-1960s, anchored by HYV seeds (Mexico wheat, Philippine IR-8 rice), made India self-reliant in foodgrains but produced regional disparities and ecological costs.
- Indian agriculture today faces eight structural problems: erratic monsoon, low yields, indebtedness, weak land reforms, small/fragmented holdings (~86% small/marginal), lack of commercialisation, underemployment, and land degradation.
- The way forward lies in sustainability: organic farming, micro-irrigation, FPOs, MSP guarantees, climate-smart practices and the Doubling Farmers' Income mission.
Fig 3.8 — Indicative MSP Trend for Wheat and Paddy (Rs/quintal)
MSP for wheat and paddy has risen steadily, reflecting both inflation and policy commitment to floor prices for farmers.
Frequently Asked Questions
What was the Green Revolution in India?
The Green Revolution was the rapid increase in foodgrain production in India from the late 1960s, achieved through high-yielding variety (HYV) seeds, chemical fertilisers, pesticides, irrigation and farm mechanisation. It made India self-sufficient in wheat and rice, especially in Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh.
What are the problems of Indian agriculture?
Indian agriculture suffers from low productivity, dependence on monsoon, small and fragmented landholdings, soil degradation, depleting groundwater, regional imbalance in development, lack of marketing infrastructure, unstable prices and farmer indebtedness.
What is sustainable agriculture?
Sustainable agriculture is a system of farming that meets present food needs without harming the ability of future generations to meet theirs. It uses techniques such as organic manures, crop rotation, drip irrigation, integrated pest management and conservation of soil and water.
What is land reform?
Land reform refers to government measures to redistribute agricultural land more equitably, such as abolition of intermediaries, ceiling on landholdings, consolidation of fragmented holdings and protection of tenants' rights.
What is food security?
Food security means availability, accessibility and affordability of sufficient, safe and nutritious food for all people at all times. India ensures food security through buffer stocks, the Public Distribution System (PDS) and the National Food Security Act, 2013.
What is the difference between productivity and production?
Production is the total quantity of a crop produced in a region (e.g., in tonnes). Productivity is the output per unit of land (e.g., kg per hectare). India has high production but relatively low productivity for many crops compared to global standards.
What is Minimum Support Price (MSP)?
Minimum Support Price (MSP) is the floor price announced by the Government of India before the sowing season for major crops. The government commits to buy farmers' produce at MSP if market prices fall below it, protecting them from distress sales.
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